The Gelug Tradition The Kadampa tradition founded by Atisha was the direct source of inspiration for the development of the Gelug tradition founded by Je Tsongkhapa (1357-1419). He was born in the Tsongkha region of Amdo province. At the age of three he received full-fledged lay ordination from the Fourth Karmapa, Rolpey Dorjey, and the name Kunga Nyingpo. At the age of seven he received novice vows from his teacher, Chöjey Dhondup Rinchen, and was given the name Lobsang Drakpa. Even at this young age he had received many teachings and initiations of Heruka, Yamantaka and Hevajra, and could recite by heart texts like Expression of the Names of Manjushri.
Tsongkhapa travelled extensively in search of knowledge and studied with masters of all the existing traditions beginning with Chennga Chökyi Gyelpo, from whom he received teachings on topics such as the mind of enlightenment and the Great Seal (Mahamudra). He was taught the medical treatises by Könchok Kyab at Drikung. In Nyethang Dewachen he studied the Ornaments for clear Realisation and the Perfection of Wisdom and, excelling in debate, he became famous for his erudition. He also travelled to Sakya where he studied monastic discipline, phenomenology, valid cognition, the Middle Way and Guhyasamaja with lamas such as Kazhipa Losel and Rendawa. He also received transmissions of the Six Doctrines of Naropa. the Kalachakra. Mahamudra, the Path and Its Fruit, Chakrasamvara and numerous others and transmitted them to his disciples.
In addition to his studies and teachings he engaged in extensive meditation retreats. The longest, at Wolkha Cholung, lasted four years during which he was accompanied by eight close disciples. He is reputed to have performed millions of prostration's, mandala offerings and other forms of purification practice. Tsongkhapa frequently had visions of meditational deities and especially of Manjushri, with whom he could communicate to settle his questions about profound aspects of the teachings.
Tsongkhapa studied with more than a hundred teachers, practised extensively and taught thousands of disciples mainly in the central and eastern regions of Tibet. In addition he wrote a great deal. His collected works, comprising eighteen volumes, contain hundred of titles relating to all aspects of Buddhist teachings and clarify some of the most difficult topics of sutrayana and mantrayana teachings. Major works among them are: the Great Exposition of the Stages of the Path (Lam-rim chen-mo), the Great Exposition of Tantras (sNgag-rim chenmo), the Essence of Eloquence on the Interpretive and Definitive Teachings (Drnng-nges legs-bshad snying-po), the Praise of Relativity (rTen-'brel bstodpa), the Clear Exposition of the Five Stages of Guhyasamaja (gSang-'dus rim-lnga gsal-sgron) and the Golden Rosary (gSer-phreng).Among his many main disciples, Gyeltsab Dharma Rinchen (1364-1432), Khedrub Geleg Pelsang (1385-1438), Gyalwa Gendun Drup (1391-1474), Jamyang Chöjey Tashi Pelden (1379-1449), Jamchen Chöjey Shakya Yeshe, Jey Sherab Sengey and Kunga Dhondup (1354-143S) arc some of the more significant.
Tsongkhapa finally passed away at the age of sixty on the twenty-fifth of the tenth Tibetan month, entrusting his throne in Ganden to Gyeltsabjey. So began a tradition which continues to the present day. The ninety-ninth successor to the Ganden throne, and thus the formal head of the Gelugpa, is Ven. Yeshi Dhondup.
Of the major Gelugpa monasteries in Tibet, Ganden Monastery was founded by Tsongkhapa himself in 1409 and was divided into two colleges, Shartsey and Jangtsey. Jamyang Chöje Tashi Pelden founded Drepung Monastery in 1416. At one time it had seven branches but these were later amalgated into four Loseling, Gomang, Deyang and Ngagpa. Of the, only two college. Drepung and Gomang have survived up to the present time. Another of Tsongkhapa's spiritual sons, Jamchen Chöjey Shakya Yeshi established Sera Monastery in 1419. This too initially had five colleges which were later amalgated into two-Sera-Jey and Sera-Mey. Similarly, Gyalwa Gendun Drup, the First Dalai Lama, founded Tashi Lhunpo Monastery at Shigatse in 1447, which was to become the seat of the successive Panchen Lamas. It originally had four colleges.
The Lower Tantric College, Gyumey, was established by Jey Sherab Sengey in 1440, and the Upper Tantric College Gyutö by Gyuchen Kunga Dhondup in 1474. At their peak there were more than five thousand monks in each of the monastic universities around Lhasa, Ganden, Drepung and Sera, while there were at least five hundred in each tantric college. Young men would travel from all three regions of Tibet to enroll at these monastic universities as monks in order to receive an education and spiritual training. The Gelug tradition lays special emphasis on the place of ethics, as expressed through monastic discipline, as the ideal basis for religious education and practice. Consequently, the great majority of Gelugpa lamas are monks and the master who is a layman is a rarity. In addition, the Gelug tradition regards sound scholarship as a prerequisite for constructive meditation, hence, the teachings of both sutra and tantra are subject to rigorous analysis through the medium of dialectical debate.
In general, the curriculum of study covers the five major topics-the perfection of wisdom, philosophy of the Middle Way, valid cognition, phenomenology and monastic discipline. These five are studied meticulously by the dialectical method using Indian texts as well as Indian and Tibetan commentaries to them, often textbooks unique to each monastic tradition, for a period of fifteen to twenty years. On completing this training, a monk is awarded one of three levels of the degree of Geshey (Doctorate of Buddhist Philosophy), Dorampa, Tsogrampa and Lharampa, of which the highest is the Geshey Lharampa degree.
Subsequently, if he so wishes the Geshey may join one of the tantric colleges to study the tantras and so complete his formal studies, or he may return to his local monastery to teach, or retire into seclusion to engage in intensive meditation. A monk who has completed a Geshey's training is respected as being a fully qualified and authoritative spiritual master worthy of devotion and esteem.
This tradition remains dynamic even after coming into exile. The major Gelug monasteries, Sera, Drepung, Ganden, and Tashi Lhunpo monasteries and Gyumey Tantric College have been re-established in various Tibetan settlements in Karnataka, and Gyutö Tantric College has been re-established in Bomdila, Arunachal Pradesh, all in India.
Saturday, October 18, 2008
http://www.tibet.com/buddhism/kagyu.html
The Kagyu Tradition The lineages of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism derive primarily from two sources: Marpa Chökyi Lodoe (1012-1099) and Khyungpo Nyaljor (978-1079). The former was trained as a translator by Drogmi Yeshe (993-1050), and then travelled three times to India and four times to Nepal in search of religious teachings. He studied at the feet of one hundred and eight spiritual masters and adepts, principally Naropa and Maitripa. Marpa received the lineage of tantric teachings called the Four Commissioned Lineages (bK'n-babs-bzhi) - concerning the Illusory Body and Consciousness Transference, Dreams, Clear Light, and Inner Heat directly from Naropa (1016-1100), who had been given them by his teacher Tilopa (988-1069). Their original source was Buddha Vajradhara.
Marpa brought these lineages to Tibet, passing them on to his foremost disciple Milarepa (1040-1123), the most celebrated and accomplished of Tibet's tantric yogis, who achieved the ultimate goal of enlightenment in one lifetime. Milarepa was given responsibility for his meditation lineage and others such as Ngog Choku Dorjey, Tsurton Wangey and Meton Chenpo became holders of Marpa's teaching lineage. This is how the dual system of philosophical training (bShad-grva) and the meditation training (sGub-grva) are found established in Kagyu monasteries. Among Milarepa's disciples, Gampopa (1084-1161), also known as Dagpo Lhaje and Rechungpa (1084-1161) were the most illustrious. The former received the teaching and practice of the Great Seal (Mahamudrn) and the Six Yogas of Naropa from Milarepa and synthesised them into one lineage. The resultant combined lineage came to be known as Dakpo Kagyu, the mother lineage of the Kagyu tradition. Gampopa also pioneered a fusion of Milarepa's Mahamudra tradition with the stages of the path tradition of the Kadampa order. Gampopa's Jewel Ornaments of Liberation is prominent amongst the stages of the path literature of Tibet. The Kagyu Mahamudra lineage was later incorporated into the Gelug tradition by the First Panchen Lama, Lobsang Chökyi Gyeltsen (1570-1662) and is known as the Ganden-Kagyu Tradition of Mahamudra.
The Dakpo Kagyu tradition gave rise to four major schools founded by illustrious disciples of Gampopa. These are the Tselpa (Tshal-pa) Kagyu founded by Zhang Yudakpa Tsondu Dakpa (1123-1193), whose chief teacher was Wangom Tsultrim Nyingpo. He founded the Gungthang monastery and had many learned disciples. The Barom ('Ba-rom) Kagyu was founded by Barom Darma Wangchuk. He built Barom monastery, from which the tradition took its name. The Phagtru (`Phag-gru) Kagyu was founded by Phagmo Trupa Dorje Gyelpo (1110-1170). He was one of Gampopa's main disciples particularly noted for his realisation and transmission of the Mahamudra teachings. Many of his disciples attained high realisation, such as Taglung Thangpa, Kalden Yeshi, Ling Repa Pema Dorjey, Jigten Gonpo and Kher Gompa. Phagmo Trupa also built a monastery in the Phagmo locality which was later called Densa Thil. Many sub-schools grew from his lineage of disciples.
The Kamtsang or Karma Kagyu was founded by the first Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa (1110-1193). This tradition has remained strong and successful due in large part to the presence of an unbroken line of reincarnations of the founder, the successive Karmapas. Famous among them were the Second Karmapa, Pakshi (1206-1282), the third Karmapa, Ranjung Dorjey (1284-1339) and the Eighth, Karmapa Mikyo Dorjey (1507-1554). The most recent incarnation was the Sixteenth Karmapa, Ranjung Rigpe Dorjey (1924-81), who in exile was also appointed bead of the whole Kagyu tradition. In Tibet, Tsurphu, located in Central Tibet was the main monastery of this tradition. After coming into exile, the tradition has re-established its headquarters and principal monastic university at Rumtek in Sikkim. It has also developed hundreds of centres throughout the world. In the present absence of the Gyalwa Karmapa's incarnation four high lamas who were his disciples are acting as regents. They are Shamar Rinpoche, Gyaltsab Rinpochey, Situ Rinpochey and Jamgon Kongtrul Rinpochey.
Eight sub-school developed within the Phagdu Kagyu. The Drikung ('Brigung) Kagyu, founded by Drikung Kyopa Jigten Gonpo (1143-1217) is presently headed by the 37th Successor, Drikung Kyabgon Che-Tsang (b. 1946), who resides at his monastery in Ladakh. The Taglung (sTag-lung) Kagyu, founded by Taglung Thangpa Tashe Pel (1142-1210). The present head of this school is Shabdrung Rinpochey, who now lives in Sikkim. The Drukpa('Brug pa) Kagyu founded by Choje Gyare Yeshe Dorjey also known as Ling Repa (1128-1189), is headed by the 12th Drukchen Rinpochey, who has re-established his monastery in Darjeeling, India.
Among the eight sub-schools only these three survive to the present day, with the Drukpa being numerically the largest, followed by Drikung. Unfortunately other subsects of Kagyu tradition such as Trophu (Khrophu) founded by Rinpochey Gyaltsa, a nephew of Phagmo Trupa, who built Trophu monastery; Martsang (sMar-tsang) founded by Marpa Rinchen Lodoe; Yelpa (Yel-pa) established by Yelpa Yeshe Tseg; the Shungseb (Shugs-gseb) started by Chökyi Sengey and Yamzang (gYa'abzang) Kagyu founded by Yeshi Senge have ceased to exist, at least as separate institutions. Although a few lamas of the other major Kagyu traditions may still maintain some of their teaching lineages.
The Shangpa Kagyu, one of the two original forms of the Kagyu tradition, was founded by the great adept, Khyungpo Nyaljor (978-1079). Dissatisfied with his training in Bön and Dzogchen practices, Khyungpo Nyaljor left for Nepal where he met Acharya Sumati. From him he received training as a translator and travelled on to India. After having received teachings from one hundred and fifty scholar-adepts he is said to have mastered the entire exoteric and esoteric doctrine as well as meditation on it. His principal teachers include Sukhasiddha, Rahulagupta and Niguma, the consort of Naropa. Besides receiving practical guidance from masters in human form, he also received transmissions from the Dakinis (celestial beings). After returning to Tibet, he received the vows of a monk from the Kadampa master Langri Thangpa.
In accordance with the prophecies of the Dakinis, he established the Shang-Shong monastery at Yeru Shang, in central Tibet. As a result the tradition he founded came to be known as the Shangpa Kagyu. Later, he is said to have established further branch monasteries also. In early times, there were more than a hundred monasteries belonging to this tradition in Tibet. Amongst his followers, Mehu Tonpa, Mogchogpa and Shang Gomcho Sengey are some of the most famous. Amongst the later lineage, it was Tsurton Wangi Dorje, from whom Buton Rinchen Drup obtained the lineage of the Guhyasamaja tantra which was subsequently passed down to Tsongkhapa.
The Shangpa Kagyu main practices concerned Mahakala, Chakrasambhava, Hevajra, Mahamaya, Guhyasamaja, the Six Doctrines of Niguma, Mahamudra, and others. The principal contemporary exponent of this tradition was the late Kalu Rinpoche (1905-1989), one of the leading Kagyu meditation masters of this century. It should be noted that while there are many sub-schools within Kagyupas, the fundamental principles of their doctrine are rooted in Mahamudra and the Six Yogas of Naropa. The different schools have arisen only due to slightly different individual approaches to the fundamental teachings.
Mahamudra, the unique feature of Kagyu tradition, can be explained according to interpretations of sutra and tantra. Both aspects of the teachings are aimed at direct understanding of the real nature of the mind. The approach to Mahamudra, which differs slightly within each Kagyu school, generally follows through the stages of foundation, path and fruit. Tantric practices unique to Kagyu tradition are the Six Yogas of Naropa, Cakrasambhava and Mahakala. In the context of tantric practice, the application of Mahamudra becomes much more profound and sophisticated.
The training of monks in Kagyu monasteries consists mainly of the study of the Perfection of Wisdom, Madhyamika, Valid Cognition, Discipline and Phenomenology common to all traditions, except that each tradition has its own monastic texts and commentaries to facilitate understanding of the original Indian texts.
The present head of the Karma Kagyu tradition is H.H. XVII Gyalwa Karmapa Ogyen Drodul Trinley Dorje
Marpa brought these lineages to Tibet, passing them on to his foremost disciple Milarepa (1040-1123), the most celebrated and accomplished of Tibet's tantric yogis, who achieved the ultimate goal of enlightenment in one lifetime. Milarepa was given responsibility for his meditation lineage and others such as Ngog Choku Dorjey, Tsurton Wangey and Meton Chenpo became holders of Marpa's teaching lineage. This is how the dual system of philosophical training (bShad-grva) and the meditation training (sGub-grva) are found established in Kagyu monasteries. Among Milarepa's disciples, Gampopa (1084-1161), also known as Dagpo Lhaje and Rechungpa (1084-1161) were the most illustrious. The former received the teaching and practice of the Great Seal (Mahamudrn) and the Six Yogas of Naropa from Milarepa and synthesised them into one lineage. The resultant combined lineage came to be known as Dakpo Kagyu, the mother lineage of the Kagyu tradition. Gampopa also pioneered a fusion of Milarepa's Mahamudra tradition with the stages of the path tradition of the Kadampa order. Gampopa's Jewel Ornaments of Liberation is prominent amongst the stages of the path literature of Tibet. The Kagyu Mahamudra lineage was later incorporated into the Gelug tradition by the First Panchen Lama, Lobsang Chökyi Gyeltsen (1570-1662) and is known as the Ganden-Kagyu Tradition of Mahamudra.
The Dakpo Kagyu tradition gave rise to four major schools founded by illustrious disciples of Gampopa. These are the Tselpa (Tshal-pa) Kagyu founded by Zhang Yudakpa Tsondu Dakpa (1123-1193), whose chief teacher was Wangom Tsultrim Nyingpo. He founded the Gungthang monastery and had many learned disciples. The Barom ('Ba-rom) Kagyu was founded by Barom Darma Wangchuk. He built Barom monastery, from which the tradition took its name. The Phagtru (`Phag-gru) Kagyu was founded by Phagmo Trupa Dorje Gyelpo (1110-1170). He was one of Gampopa's main disciples particularly noted for his realisation and transmission of the Mahamudra teachings. Many of his disciples attained high realisation, such as Taglung Thangpa, Kalden Yeshi, Ling Repa Pema Dorjey, Jigten Gonpo and Kher Gompa. Phagmo Trupa also built a monastery in the Phagmo locality which was later called Densa Thil. Many sub-schools grew from his lineage of disciples.
The Kamtsang or Karma Kagyu was founded by the first Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa (1110-1193). This tradition has remained strong and successful due in large part to the presence of an unbroken line of reincarnations of the founder, the successive Karmapas. Famous among them were the Second Karmapa, Pakshi (1206-1282), the third Karmapa, Ranjung Dorjey (1284-1339) and the Eighth, Karmapa Mikyo Dorjey (1507-1554). The most recent incarnation was the Sixteenth Karmapa, Ranjung Rigpe Dorjey (1924-81), who in exile was also appointed bead of the whole Kagyu tradition. In Tibet, Tsurphu, located in Central Tibet was the main monastery of this tradition. After coming into exile, the tradition has re-established its headquarters and principal monastic university at Rumtek in Sikkim. It has also developed hundreds of centres throughout the world. In the present absence of the Gyalwa Karmapa's incarnation four high lamas who were his disciples are acting as regents. They are Shamar Rinpoche, Gyaltsab Rinpochey, Situ Rinpochey and Jamgon Kongtrul Rinpochey.
Eight sub-school developed within the Phagdu Kagyu. The Drikung ('Brigung) Kagyu, founded by Drikung Kyopa Jigten Gonpo (1143-1217) is presently headed by the 37th Successor, Drikung Kyabgon Che-Tsang (b. 1946), who resides at his monastery in Ladakh. The Taglung (sTag-lung) Kagyu, founded by Taglung Thangpa Tashe Pel (1142-1210). The present head of this school is Shabdrung Rinpochey, who now lives in Sikkim. The Drukpa('Brug pa) Kagyu founded by Choje Gyare Yeshe Dorjey also known as Ling Repa (1128-1189), is headed by the 12th Drukchen Rinpochey, who has re-established his monastery in Darjeeling, India.
Among the eight sub-schools only these three survive to the present day, with the Drukpa being numerically the largest, followed by Drikung. Unfortunately other subsects of Kagyu tradition such as Trophu (Khrophu) founded by Rinpochey Gyaltsa, a nephew of Phagmo Trupa, who built Trophu monastery; Martsang (sMar-tsang) founded by Marpa Rinchen Lodoe; Yelpa (Yel-pa) established by Yelpa Yeshe Tseg; the Shungseb (Shugs-gseb) started by Chökyi Sengey and Yamzang (gYa'abzang) Kagyu founded by Yeshi Senge have ceased to exist, at least as separate institutions. Although a few lamas of the other major Kagyu traditions may still maintain some of their teaching lineages.
The Shangpa Kagyu, one of the two original forms of the Kagyu tradition, was founded by the great adept, Khyungpo Nyaljor (978-1079). Dissatisfied with his training in Bön and Dzogchen practices, Khyungpo Nyaljor left for Nepal where he met Acharya Sumati. From him he received training as a translator and travelled on to India. After having received teachings from one hundred and fifty scholar-adepts he is said to have mastered the entire exoteric and esoteric doctrine as well as meditation on it. His principal teachers include Sukhasiddha, Rahulagupta and Niguma, the consort of Naropa. Besides receiving practical guidance from masters in human form, he also received transmissions from the Dakinis (celestial beings). After returning to Tibet, he received the vows of a monk from the Kadampa master Langri Thangpa.
In accordance with the prophecies of the Dakinis, he established the Shang-Shong monastery at Yeru Shang, in central Tibet. As a result the tradition he founded came to be known as the Shangpa Kagyu. Later, he is said to have established further branch monasteries also. In early times, there were more than a hundred monasteries belonging to this tradition in Tibet. Amongst his followers, Mehu Tonpa, Mogchogpa and Shang Gomcho Sengey are some of the most famous. Amongst the later lineage, it was Tsurton Wangi Dorje, from whom Buton Rinchen Drup obtained the lineage of the Guhyasamaja tantra which was subsequently passed down to Tsongkhapa.
The Shangpa Kagyu main practices concerned Mahakala, Chakrasambhava, Hevajra, Mahamaya, Guhyasamaja, the Six Doctrines of Niguma, Mahamudra, and others. The principal contemporary exponent of this tradition was the late Kalu Rinpoche (1905-1989), one of the leading Kagyu meditation masters of this century. It should be noted that while there are many sub-schools within Kagyupas, the fundamental principles of their doctrine are rooted in Mahamudra and the Six Yogas of Naropa. The different schools have arisen only due to slightly different individual approaches to the fundamental teachings.
Mahamudra, the unique feature of Kagyu tradition, can be explained according to interpretations of sutra and tantra. Both aspects of the teachings are aimed at direct understanding of the real nature of the mind. The approach to Mahamudra, which differs slightly within each Kagyu school, generally follows through the stages of foundation, path and fruit. Tantric practices unique to Kagyu tradition are the Six Yogas of Naropa, Cakrasambhava and Mahakala. In the context of tantric practice, the application of Mahamudra becomes much more profound and sophisticated.
The training of monks in Kagyu monasteries consists mainly of the study of the Perfection of Wisdom, Madhyamika, Valid Cognition, Discipline and Phenomenology common to all traditions, except that each tradition has its own monastic texts and commentaries to facilitate understanding of the original Indian texts.
The present head of the Karma Kagyu tradition is H.H. XVII Gyalwa Karmapa Ogyen Drodul Trinley Dorje
http://www.tibet.com/buddhism/sakya.html
The Sakya Tradition The Sakya tradition is closely bound up with the Khon ancestral lineage, which derived from celestial beings. The lineage has descended intact up to the present time from Khon Könchok Gyelpo(1034-l 102), founder of the Sakya tradition.
From the doctrinal point of view the tradition traces its origins to the Indian Yogin Virupa through Gayadhara. His disciple Drogmi Shakya Yeshe (992-1074) travelled to India where he received teachings on the Kalachakra, the Path and its Fruit and others from many Indian masters and returned to Tibet. Later, Khon Könchok Gyelpo, one of his main disciples, built a monastery in the Tsang province of central Tibet and named it Sakya, or Grey Earth monastery. So the school took its name, Sakya, from the location of the monastery. Khon Könchok Gyelpo's son Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (1092-1158) was a person of extraordinary skill and spiritual attainment, who held all the lineages of tantra and sutra teachings of Arya Nagarjuna and Virupa. He had four sons - Kungabar, Sonam Tsemo, Jetsun Dakpa Gyeltsen and Palchen Rinpochey. The second son Sonam Tsemo (1142-82) became a learned scholar at the early age of sixteen. He had visions of many meditational deities and also produced many realised disciples. Jetsun Dakpa Gyeltsen (1147-1216) received lay celibacy vows and showed strong signs of spiritual maturity in his youth. At the age of eleven he gave his first Hevajra teaching.
The principal disciple of Jetsun Dakpa Gyeltsen was his nephew, son of Palchen of Öpochey the famous Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyeltsen (1182-1251). Sakya Pandita studied Buddhist and non-Buddhist philosophy, logic, Sanskrit, poetry, astrology and art with countless Indian, Nepalese, Kashmiri and Tibetan masters and achieved mastery over them. When he was twenty-seven years old, after meeting with the Kashmiri Pandita Shakya Shribhadra, he became a fully ordained monk and maintained his vows without least infraction. His works such as the Treasury of Logic on Valid Cognition (Tsod-ma rigs-gter) and the Discrimination of the Three Vows (sDom-gsum rab-dbye) are famous even to this day.
In 1244, Godan Khan, grandson of Chingis Khan, intrigued by Sakya Pandita's reputation, invited him to Mongolia, where he gave Buddhist teachings. Later, in 1253, after both Sakya Pandita and Godan Khan had passed away, the emperor, Sechen Kublai Khan invited Drogön Chögyal Phagpa. nephew of Sakya Pandita to his court. Phagpa invented a new script in which to write the Mongolian language. Kublai Khan was so impressed by Phagpa's performance that he declared Buddhism the state religion of Mongolia and presented him the rule of the three provinces of Tibet. Thus, Phagpa was the first person in Tibetan history to gain religious and secular authority over the whole country. He was succeeded by his brother Chagna and altogether the Sakyapas ruled Tibet for more than a hundred years.
Eventually, Tishri Kunglo (1299-1327), eldest of the fifteen grandsons of Sakya Pandita's brother, founded four dynastic houses: Zhithog, Rinchen Gang, Lhakhang and Ducho, of which only the last two dynasties have survived. However, in fifteenth century the Ducho dynasty split into two sub-dynasties, or palaces the Dolma Phodrang and Phuntsok Phodrang. The present hierarchs of these two palaces are Sakya Trizin.
Ngawang Kunga Theckchen Rinpochey (b. 1945). who is the current head of the Sakya tradition, and lives in Dehra Dun, India and, Dagchen Rinpochey (b. 1929), the founder of Sakya Thegchen Choling in the United States of America. Succession to the position of head of the Sakya tradition has been hereditary since the time of Khon Könchok Gyelpo and traditionally alternates between the two palaces. Sakya Dagtri Rinpochey, the present incumbent is the 4lst occupant of the Sakya Throne.
Amongst the principal holders of the Sakya tradition, Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (1092-1158), Sonam Tsemo (1142-1182), Dakpa Gyeltsen (1147-1216), Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyeltsen (1182-1251) and Drogön Chögyal Phagpa (1235-1280) are known as the Five Patriarchs of the Sakya tradition. After them, were the so called Six Ornaments of Tibet: Yaktuk Sangyey Pal and Rongton Mawe Sengey, who were reputed for their authority on sutra teachings; Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo and Zongpa Kunga Namgyel, who were learned in the tantras; Goram Sonam Sengey and Shakya Chogden who were learned in both sutras and tantras. These were famous spiritual masters of Sakya tradition. Amongst them Gorampa Sonam Sengey, instituted the formal study of logic in Sakya tradition.
Like other traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, a number of sub-divisions emerged within the main Sakya tradition. The lineage of teachings within the discipline instituted by Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo (1382-1457) and successive masters such as Könchok Lhundrup, Thartse Namkha Pelsang and Drubkhang Pelden Dhondup have come to be known as the Ngor lineage, whereas, the lineages of Tsarchen Losel Gyatso (1502-56), called the whispered-lineage of Tsar, concerning the Thirteen Golden Texts of Tsar, including the secret doctrines of the greater or lesser Mahakala, Vajra Yogini, Jambhala and others, is known as the Tsar tradition. Thus, the Sakya school of the Khon lineage represents the main trunk of a tree, of which the Ngorpa and Tsarpa schools are branches. These are, the three schools (Sa-Ngor-Tsar-gsum) in Sakya tradition.
The central teaching and practice of the Sakyapa, called Lamdrey (Lam-'bras), the Path and Its Fruit, ultimately leads a practitioner to the state of Hevajra. The Path and Its Fruit is a synthesis of the entire paths and fruits of both the exoteric and esoteric classes of teachings. The Path and Its Fruit teaching originating from the Indian teachers Virupa, Avadhuti, Gayadhara and Shakyamitra, a follower of Arya Nagarjuna, were brought to Tibet by the Tibetan translator Drogmi and have been passed down through an unbroken lineage of masters until today. During the time Muchen Sempa Chenpo Könchok Gyeltsen, a disciple of Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo (1382-1457), the Path and Its Fruit transmission broke into two sub-traditions: the Explanation for Private Disciples (sLob-bshad) and for Assemblies (Tshog-bshad) traditions. The philosophical viewpoint expressed in the Path and Its Fruit is the inseparability of samsara and nirvana. According to this, an individual cannot attain nirvana or peace by abandoning samsara or cyclic existence, because the mind is the root of both samsara and nirvana. When obscured, it takes the form of samsara and when freed of obstructions it is nirvana. Hence, the reality is that a person must strive through meditation to realise their inseparability.
In the Sakya monastic universities eighteen major texts are thoroughly studied. These deal with the Perfection of Wisdom, Monastic Discipline, Middle Path View, Phenomenology, Logic and Epistemology, as well as commentaries unique to the tradition, such as the Discrimination of the Three Vows, the Treasury of Logic on Valid Cognition and the works of Gorampa Sonam Sengey and others. On graduation, a monk is granted the degree of Kazhipa, Kachupa and Rabjampa on the basis of merit. The main tantric practices of the Sakya school are the Hevajra and Chakrasambhara tantras, Mahakala and so forth.
The major Sakya monasteries in Tibet were Nalanda in Phenpo built by Rongton Sheja Kunrig, Lhakhang Chenmo, founded by Khon Könchok Gyelpo, Tsedong Sisum Namgyel, established by Namkha Tashi Gyeltsen and Ngor E-Vam Chodhen, founded by E-Vam Kunga Zangpo in Central Tibet; Dhondup Ling, founded by Dagchen Sherab Gyeltsen and Lhundup Teng founded by Thangtong Gyalpo in Kham; and Deur Chode built by Chodak Sangpo in Amdo. Presently, Tsechen Tenpai Gatsal in Rajpur, Uttar Pradesh; Ngor E-Vam Shadrup Dargye Ling in Bir, Himachal Pradesh, Tsechen Dhongag Choeling in Mundgod, Karnataka State, and Ngor E-Vam Chodhen in Dehradun, Uttar Pradesh in India as well as Tashi Rabten Ling at Lumbini in Nepal are some of the principal re-established monasteries of the Sakya tradition.
From the doctrinal point of view the tradition traces its origins to the Indian Yogin Virupa through Gayadhara. His disciple Drogmi Shakya Yeshe (992-1074) travelled to India where he received teachings on the Kalachakra, the Path and its Fruit and others from many Indian masters and returned to Tibet. Later, Khon Könchok Gyelpo, one of his main disciples, built a monastery in the Tsang province of central Tibet and named it Sakya, or Grey Earth monastery. So the school took its name, Sakya, from the location of the monastery. Khon Könchok Gyelpo's son Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (1092-1158) was a person of extraordinary skill and spiritual attainment, who held all the lineages of tantra and sutra teachings of Arya Nagarjuna and Virupa. He had four sons - Kungabar, Sonam Tsemo, Jetsun Dakpa Gyeltsen and Palchen Rinpochey. The second son Sonam Tsemo (1142-82) became a learned scholar at the early age of sixteen. He had visions of many meditational deities and also produced many realised disciples. Jetsun Dakpa Gyeltsen (1147-1216) received lay celibacy vows and showed strong signs of spiritual maturity in his youth. At the age of eleven he gave his first Hevajra teaching.
The principal disciple of Jetsun Dakpa Gyeltsen was his nephew, son of Palchen of Öpochey the famous Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyeltsen (1182-1251). Sakya Pandita studied Buddhist and non-Buddhist philosophy, logic, Sanskrit, poetry, astrology and art with countless Indian, Nepalese, Kashmiri and Tibetan masters and achieved mastery over them. When he was twenty-seven years old, after meeting with the Kashmiri Pandita Shakya Shribhadra, he became a fully ordained monk and maintained his vows without least infraction. His works such as the Treasury of Logic on Valid Cognition (Tsod-ma rigs-gter) and the Discrimination of the Three Vows (sDom-gsum rab-dbye) are famous even to this day.
In 1244, Godan Khan, grandson of Chingis Khan, intrigued by Sakya Pandita's reputation, invited him to Mongolia, where he gave Buddhist teachings. Later, in 1253, after both Sakya Pandita and Godan Khan had passed away, the emperor, Sechen Kublai Khan invited Drogön Chögyal Phagpa. nephew of Sakya Pandita to his court. Phagpa invented a new script in which to write the Mongolian language. Kublai Khan was so impressed by Phagpa's performance that he declared Buddhism the state religion of Mongolia and presented him the rule of the three provinces of Tibet. Thus, Phagpa was the first person in Tibetan history to gain religious and secular authority over the whole country. He was succeeded by his brother Chagna and altogether the Sakyapas ruled Tibet for more than a hundred years.
Eventually, Tishri Kunglo (1299-1327), eldest of the fifteen grandsons of Sakya Pandita's brother, founded four dynastic houses: Zhithog, Rinchen Gang, Lhakhang and Ducho, of which only the last two dynasties have survived. However, in fifteenth century the Ducho dynasty split into two sub-dynasties, or palaces the Dolma Phodrang and Phuntsok Phodrang. The present hierarchs of these two palaces are Sakya Trizin.
Ngawang Kunga Theckchen Rinpochey (b. 1945). who is the current head of the Sakya tradition, and lives in Dehra Dun, India and, Dagchen Rinpochey (b. 1929), the founder of Sakya Thegchen Choling in the United States of America. Succession to the position of head of the Sakya tradition has been hereditary since the time of Khon Könchok Gyelpo and traditionally alternates between the two palaces. Sakya Dagtri Rinpochey, the present incumbent is the 4lst occupant of the Sakya Throne.
Amongst the principal holders of the Sakya tradition, Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (1092-1158), Sonam Tsemo (1142-1182), Dakpa Gyeltsen (1147-1216), Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyeltsen (1182-1251) and Drogön Chögyal Phagpa (1235-1280) are known as the Five Patriarchs of the Sakya tradition. After them, were the so called Six Ornaments of Tibet: Yaktuk Sangyey Pal and Rongton Mawe Sengey, who were reputed for their authority on sutra teachings; Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo and Zongpa Kunga Namgyel, who were learned in the tantras; Goram Sonam Sengey and Shakya Chogden who were learned in both sutras and tantras. These were famous spiritual masters of Sakya tradition. Amongst them Gorampa Sonam Sengey, instituted the formal study of logic in Sakya tradition.
Like other traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, a number of sub-divisions emerged within the main Sakya tradition. The lineage of teachings within the discipline instituted by Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo (1382-1457) and successive masters such as Könchok Lhundrup, Thartse Namkha Pelsang and Drubkhang Pelden Dhondup have come to be known as the Ngor lineage, whereas, the lineages of Tsarchen Losel Gyatso (1502-56), called the whispered-lineage of Tsar, concerning the Thirteen Golden Texts of Tsar, including the secret doctrines of the greater or lesser Mahakala, Vajra Yogini, Jambhala and others, is known as the Tsar tradition. Thus, the Sakya school of the Khon lineage represents the main trunk of a tree, of which the Ngorpa and Tsarpa schools are branches. These are, the three schools (Sa-Ngor-Tsar-gsum) in Sakya tradition.
The central teaching and practice of the Sakyapa, called Lamdrey (Lam-'bras), the Path and Its Fruit, ultimately leads a practitioner to the state of Hevajra. The Path and Its Fruit is a synthesis of the entire paths and fruits of both the exoteric and esoteric classes of teachings. The Path and Its Fruit teaching originating from the Indian teachers Virupa, Avadhuti, Gayadhara and Shakyamitra, a follower of Arya Nagarjuna, were brought to Tibet by the Tibetan translator Drogmi and have been passed down through an unbroken lineage of masters until today. During the time Muchen Sempa Chenpo Könchok Gyeltsen, a disciple of Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo (1382-1457), the Path and Its Fruit transmission broke into two sub-traditions: the Explanation for Private Disciples (sLob-bshad) and for Assemblies (Tshog-bshad) traditions. The philosophical viewpoint expressed in the Path and Its Fruit is the inseparability of samsara and nirvana. According to this, an individual cannot attain nirvana or peace by abandoning samsara or cyclic existence, because the mind is the root of both samsara and nirvana. When obscured, it takes the form of samsara and when freed of obstructions it is nirvana. Hence, the reality is that a person must strive through meditation to realise their inseparability.
In the Sakya monastic universities eighteen major texts are thoroughly studied. These deal with the Perfection of Wisdom, Monastic Discipline, Middle Path View, Phenomenology, Logic and Epistemology, as well as commentaries unique to the tradition, such as the Discrimination of the Three Vows, the Treasury of Logic on Valid Cognition and the works of Gorampa Sonam Sengey and others. On graduation, a monk is granted the degree of Kazhipa, Kachupa and Rabjampa on the basis of merit. The main tantric practices of the Sakya school are the Hevajra and Chakrasambhara tantras, Mahakala and so forth.
The major Sakya monasteries in Tibet were Nalanda in Phenpo built by Rongton Sheja Kunrig, Lhakhang Chenmo, founded by Khon Könchok Gyelpo, Tsedong Sisum Namgyel, established by Namkha Tashi Gyeltsen and Ngor E-Vam Chodhen, founded by E-Vam Kunga Zangpo in Central Tibet; Dhondup Ling, founded by Dagchen Sherab Gyeltsen and Lhundup Teng founded by Thangtong Gyalpo in Kham; and Deur Chode built by Chodak Sangpo in Amdo. Presently, Tsechen Tenpai Gatsal in Rajpur, Uttar Pradesh; Ngor E-Vam Shadrup Dargye Ling in Bir, Himachal Pradesh, Tsechen Dhongag Choeling in Mundgod, Karnataka State, and Ngor E-Vam Chodhen in Dehradun, Uttar Pradesh in India as well as Tashi Rabten Ling at Lumbini in Nepal are some of the principal re-established monasteries of the Sakya tradition.
http://www.tibet.com/buddhism/nyingma.html
The Nyingma Tradition The Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism traces its origin to the Indian adept, Guru Padmasambhava, who came to Tibet in 817 C.E. at the invitation of King Trisong Deutsan (742-797) in order to subdue the evil forces then impeding the spread of Buddhism. Guru Rinpochey, as he is popularly known, bound all evil spirits by oath and transformed them into forces compatible with the spread of Buddhism. In collaboration with the great Bodhisattva Abbot Shantarakshita, Guru Rinpochey then built Samyey monastery, which became a principal centre of learning and the site where many of the texts that would make up Tibet's vast Buddhist literature were first translated into Tibetan.
Guru Rinpochey also gave widespread teachings from the highest classes of tantra and in particular to his twenty-five principal disciples. These first Tibetan adepts are renowned for their spiritual accomplishments, for example, Namkhe Nyingpo for his feat of travelling on beams of light, Khandro Yeshe Tsogyal for reviving the dead, Vairochana for his intuition, Nanam Yeshe for soaring in the sky, Kawa Peltseg for reading others thought and Jnana Kumara for his miraculous powers.
Contemporary Indian masters Vimalamitra, Buddhaguhya, Shantipa and the tantric adept, Dharmakirti, also came to Tibet and spread tantric teachings. So, although the study of logic and Buddhist philosophy was not yet prevalent, the practice of tantra in extreme secrecy was much favoured. Even the work of translating such esoteric texts as Kun-byed rgyal-po, mDo-dgougs-'dus and the Mahamaya cycle of teachings by Vairochana, Nyag Jnana Kumara, Nubchen Sangye Yeshe and others, was carried out in great secrecy.
Seeing the disciples unripe and the time inappropriate for many of the other teachings he had to reveal, Guru Padmasambhava hid hundreds of Treasures in the forms of scriptures, images and ritual articles, with instructions for their revelation for the benefit of future generations. Subsequently, more than one hundred masters have revealed these Treasures and taught them to their disciples. So, besides the tantric teachings, it is these lineages of revealed teachings combined with the Great Completion or Dzogchen doctrine taught and disseminated successively by Garab Doyjer, Shri Simha, Guru Rinpochey, Jnana Sutra, Vimala Mitra, which are distinguished in Tibet as Nyingma doctrine.
The Nyingma tradition divides the entire Buddhist teachings into Nine Vehicles: the Three Common Vehicles comprising the Hearer, Solitary Realizer, and Bodhisattva vehicles dealing with those categories of teachings included in the sutras taught by Buddha Shakyamuni; the Three Outer Tantras consisting of Kriya Tantra which places greater emphasis on practising proper external behaviour, physical and verbal conduct aimed at purification and simple visualisation practice; Upa Tantra which lays more emphasis on developing both external and internal faculties with the goal of achieving a deeper affinity with the meditational deity; and Yoga Tantra, which I mainly aimed at developing the strength of inner psychophysical vitality as taught by Vajrasattva. Finally, the Three Innermost Tantras comprising Mahayoga, primarily emphasising the Generation Stage practice in which the ordinary level of perception and attachment are eliminated through sacred vision and divine pride; the Annuyoga, emphasising Completion Stage practice in which the vajra body is used as a serviceable means to actualise primordial awareness and the Atiyoga, in which all emphasis is directed towards full activation of the generation and completion stage practices, enabling the yogi to transcend all ordinary time, activity and experience, as taught by Samantabhadra Buddha.
The first six of these nine vehicles are common to all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, whereas the last three, the Innermost Tantras, are exclusive to the Nyingma tradition.
Due to the slightly different approaches of various lineages in presenting Dzogchen three sub-schools have developed: The Mind School (Sems-sde) is attributed to Shrisimha and Vairochana's lineage, the Centredness School (kLong-sde) is attributed to Longde Dorje Zampa, and Shrisimha and Vairochana's lineage, whereas the Quintessential Instruction School (Man-ngag-sde) is attributed directly to Guru Padmasambhava's lineage of the Heart's Drop (sNying-thig) cycle of teachings and practice. Although Dzogchen is the unique feature of Nyingma practice, even among the lay followers the practice of reciting Guru Rinpochey's prayers, observing the 10th and 25th of every lunar month as a day for feast offerings, and even retiring into retreat for three years and three months individually or in company are common.
According to the history of the origin of tantras there are three lineages: The Lineage of Buddha's Intention, which refers to the teachings of the Truth Body originating from the primordial Buddha Samantabhadra, who is said to have taught tantras to an assembly of completely enlightened beings emanated from the Truth Body itself. Therefore, this level of teaching is considered as being completely beyond the reach of ordinary human beings. The Lineage of the Knowledge Holders corresponds to the teachings of the Enjoyment Body originating from Vajrasattva and Vajrapani, whose human lineage begins with Garab Dorje of the Ögyan Dakini land. From him the lineage passed to Manjushrimitra, Shrisimha and then to Guru Rinpochey, Jnanasutra, Vimalamitra and Vairochana who disseminated it in Tibet. Lastly, the Human Whispered Lineage corresponds to the teachings of the Emanation Body, originating from the Five Buddha Families. They were passed on to Shrisimha, who transmitted them to Guru Rinpochey, who in giving them to Vimalamitra started the lineage which has continued in Tibet until the present day.
This last mode of transmission is most commonly employed for ordinary people. However, the former two lineages may still exist amongst the highly realised Dzogchen masters.
There is yet another tradition which enumerates six lineages for the origin of the tantras by adding: the Commissioned Instruction Lineage (bK'a-babs lung-bstan-gyi-btgyud-pa), the Treasure Doctrine Lineage of the Fortunate One's (Las-'phrn gter-gyi-brgyud- pa) and the Lineage of Trustees Established Through Prayers (sMon-lam gtad-rgya'i-brgyud-pa).
The Nyingma tantric literature and its transmission is classified into three groups: the Oral, Treasures, and Visions. These three may be further subsumed under two categories: the Oral comprising primarily the tantras and associated texts belonging to the cycle of Mahayoga tantras; the root and explanatory tantra belonging to the cycle of Annuyoga tantras; and finally, the Atiyoga or Dzogchen cycle of tantras.
The Treasure transmission comprises the innumerable treasure texts revealed by subsequent Treasure Masters, which were hidden by Guru Rinpochey himself in 9th century as well as numerous teachings later revealed through enlightened minds and meditative visions of Nyingma masters. Hundreds of masters have appeared who have revealed treasures. Among them, Nyangral Nyima Özer (1124-92), Guru Chowang (1212-70), Dorje Lingpa (1346-1405), Padma Lingpa (b.1405) and Jamyang Khyentse (1820-1892) are renowned as the Five Kings of the Treasure Masters. Their revealed treasures concern, among others, the cycle of teachings and meditations related to Avalokiteshvara, Guru Rinpochey's sadhanas, the Dzogchen teachings, the Ka-gyey cycle of teachings, the Vajrakila or Phurba cycle of teachings, medicine and prophecies.
Hence, in addition to the standard Mahayana Buddhist canon of the Kangyur and Tangyur, many further teachings may be found in the Collection of a Hundred Thousand Nyingma Tantras, compiled in thirteenth century by Tertön Ratna Lingpa (1403-1473) and organised by Kunkhyen Longchen Ramjampa (1308-1363). Besides this, numerous works such as the sixty volumes of the Rinchen Terdzod compiled by Kongtrul Yonten Gyatso (1813-1899) and the writings of Rongzom, Dodrupchen, Paltrul, Mipham and many others have added to the rich collection of Nyingma literature. The oldest Nyingma institution is Samyey temple completed in 810 C.F. by Shantarakshita and Guru Padmasambhava under the patronage of King Trisong Deutsan. Subsequently, no big monasteries were built until the 12th century, when Nechung Monastery was built in Central Tibet by Chokpa Jangchub Palden and Kathok Monastery was founded in Kham by Ka Dampa Desheg (1112-92) in 1159. This is an indication that unlike the other Buddhist traditions the
Nyingmapas did not become institutionalised until much later in their history. From the 15th century onwards, great monastic universities were built, such as Mindroling, founded in 1676 by Rigzin Terdag Lingpa, otherwise known as Minling Terchen Gyurmed Dorje (1646-1714) and Dorje Drag founded in 1659 by Rigzin Ngagi Wangpo in central Tibet; and Palyul established by Rigzin Kunsang Sherab in 1665; Dzogchen built by Dzogchen Pema Rigzin in 1685 and Zhechen established by Zhechen Rabjampa in 1735, all in Kham province. Dodrupchen and Darthang monasteries were established in Amdo.
Principal monastic institutions re-established in exile are Thekchok Namdrol Shedrub Dargye Ling, in Bylakuppe, Karnataka State; Ngedon Gatsal Ling, in Clementown, Dehradun; Palyul Chokhor Ling and E-Vam Gyurmed Ling in Bir, and Nechung Drayang Ling at Dharamsala, and Thubten E-vam Dorjey Drag at Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, India.
The Nyingma tradition is presently headed by Dilgo Khyentse Rinpochey, who succeeds Kyabje Dudjom Rinpochey (1904?-1987). Besides, Minling Trichen Rinpochey, Trulzhig Rinpochey, Taglung Tsetrul Rinpochey and Penor Rinpochey are some of the living spiritual masters.
NB. The present head of Nyingmapa is His Holiness Penor Rinpoche.
Guru Rinpochey also gave widespread teachings from the highest classes of tantra and in particular to his twenty-five principal disciples. These first Tibetan adepts are renowned for their spiritual accomplishments, for example, Namkhe Nyingpo for his feat of travelling on beams of light, Khandro Yeshe Tsogyal for reviving the dead, Vairochana for his intuition, Nanam Yeshe for soaring in the sky, Kawa Peltseg for reading others thought and Jnana Kumara for his miraculous powers.
Contemporary Indian masters Vimalamitra, Buddhaguhya, Shantipa and the tantric adept, Dharmakirti, also came to Tibet and spread tantric teachings. So, although the study of logic and Buddhist philosophy was not yet prevalent, the practice of tantra in extreme secrecy was much favoured. Even the work of translating such esoteric texts as Kun-byed rgyal-po, mDo-dgougs-'dus and the Mahamaya cycle of teachings by Vairochana, Nyag Jnana Kumara, Nubchen Sangye Yeshe and others, was carried out in great secrecy.
Seeing the disciples unripe and the time inappropriate for many of the other teachings he had to reveal, Guru Padmasambhava hid hundreds of Treasures in the forms of scriptures, images and ritual articles, with instructions for their revelation for the benefit of future generations. Subsequently, more than one hundred masters have revealed these Treasures and taught them to their disciples. So, besides the tantric teachings, it is these lineages of revealed teachings combined with the Great Completion or Dzogchen doctrine taught and disseminated successively by Garab Doyjer, Shri Simha, Guru Rinpochey, Jnana Sutra, Vimala Mitra, which are distinguished in Tibet as Nyingma doctrine.
The Nyingma tradition divides the entire Buddhist teachings into Nine Vehicles: the Three Common Vehicles comprising the Hearer, Solitary Realizer, and Bodhisattva vehicles dealing with those categories of teachings included in the sutras taught by Buddha Shakyamuni; the Three Outer Tantras consisting of Kriya Tantra which places greater emphasis on practising proper external behaviour, physical and verbal conduct aimed at purification and simple visualisation practice; Upa Tantra which lays more emphasis on developing both external and internal faculties with the goal of achieving a deeper affinity with the meditational deity; and Yoga Tantra, which I mainly aimed at developing the strength of inner psychophysical vitality as taught by Vajrasattva. Finally, the Three Innermost Tantras comprising Mahayoga, primarily emphasising the Generation Stage practice in which the ordinary level of perception and attachment are eliminated through sacred vision and divine pride; the Annuyoga, emphasising Completion Stage practice in which the vajra body is used as a serviceable means to actualise primordial awareness and the Atiyoga, in which all emphasis is directed towards full activation of the generation and completion stage practices, enabling the yogi to transcend all ordinary time, activity and experience, as taught by Samantabhadra Buddha.
The first six of these nine vehicles are common to all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, whereas the last three, the Innermost Tantras, are exclusive to the Nyingma tradition.
Due to the slightly different approaches of various lineages in presenting Dzogchen three sub-schools have developed: The Mind School (Sems-sde) is attributed to Shrisimha and Vairochana's lineage, the Centredness School (kLong-sde) is attributed to Longde Dorje Zampa, and Shrisimha and Vairochana's lineage, whereas the Quintessential Instruction School (Man-ngag-sde) is attributed directly to Guru Padmasambhava's lineage of the Heart's Drop (sNying-thig) cycle of teachings and practice. Although Dzogchen is the unique feature of Nyingma practice, even among the lay followers the practice of reciting Guru Rinpochey's prayers, observing the 10th and 25th of every lunar month as a day for feast offerings, and even retiring into retreat for three years and three months individually or in company are common.
According to the history of the origin of tantras there are three lineages: The Lineage of Buddha's Intention, which refers to the teachings of the Truth Body originating from the primordial Buddha Samantabhadra, who is said to have taught tantras to an assembly of completely enlightened beings emanated from the Truth Body itself. Therefore, this level of teaching is considered as being completely beyond the reach of ordinary human beings. The Lineage of the Knowledge Holders corresponds to the teachings of the Enjoyment Body originating from Vajrasattva and Vajrapani, whose human lineage begins with Garab Dorje of the Ögyan Dakini land. From him the lineage passed to Manjushrimitra, Shrisimha and then to Guru Rinpochey, Jnanasutra, Vimalamitra and Vairochana who disseminated it in Tibet. Lastly, the Human Whispered Lineage corresponds to the teachings of the Emanation Body, originating from the Five Buddha Families. They were passed on to Shrisimha, who transmitted them to Guru Rinpochey, who in giving them to Vimalamitra started the lineage which has continued in Tibet until the present day.
This last mode of transmission is most commonly employed for ordinary people. However, the former two lineages may still exist amongst the highly realised Dzogchen masters.
There is yet another tradition which enumerates six lineages for the origin of the tantras by adding: the Commissioned Instruction Lineage (bK'a-babs lung-bstan-gyi-btgyud-pa), the Treasure Doctrine Lineage of the Fortunate One's (Las-'phrn gter-gyi-brgyud- pa) and the Lineage of Trustees Established Through Prayers (sMon-lam gtad-rgya'i-brgyud-pa).
The Nyingma tantric literature and its transmission is classified into three groups: the Oral, Treasures, and Visions. These three may be further subsumed under two categories: the Oral comprising primarily the tantras and associated texts belonging to the cycle of Mahayoga tantras; the root and explanatory tantra belonging to the cycle of Annuyoga tantras; and finally, the Atiyoga or Dzogchen cycle of tantras.
The Treasure transmission comprises the innumerable treasure texts revealed by subsequent Treasure Masters, which were hidden by Guru Rinpochey himself in 9th century as well as numerous teachings later revealed through enlightened minds and meditative visions of Nyingma masters. Hundreds of masters have appeared who have revealed treasures. Among them, Nyangral Nyima Özer (1124-92), Guru Chowang (1212-70), Dorje Lingpa (1346-1405), Padma Lingpa (b.1405) and Jamyang Khyentse (1820-1892) are renowned as the Five Kings of the Treasure Masters. Their revealed treasures concern, among others, the cycle of teachings and meditations related to Avalokiteshvara, Guru Rinpochey's sadhanas, the Dzogchen teachings, the Ka-gyey cycle of teachings, the Vajrakila or Phurba cycle of teachings, medicine and prophecies.
Hence, in addition to the standard Mahayana Buddhist canon of the Kangyur and Tangyur, many further teachings may be found in the Collection of a Hundred Thousand Nyingma Tantras, compiled in thirteenth century by Tertön Ratna Lingpa (1403-1473) and organised by Kunkhyen Longchen Ramjampa (1308-1363). Besides this, numerous works such as the sixty volumes of the Rinchen Terdzod compiled by Kongtrul Yonten Gyatso (1813-1899) and the writings of Rongzom, Dodrupchen, Paltrul, Mipham and many others have added to the rich collection of Nyingma literature. The oldest Nyingma institution is Samyey temple completed in 810 C.F. by Shantarakshita and Guru Padmasambhava under the patronage of King Trisong Deutsan. Subsequently, no big monasteries were built until the 12th century, when Nechung Monastery was built in Central Tibet by Chokpa Jangchub Palden and Kathok Monastery was founded in Kham by Ka Dampa Desheg (1112-92) in 1159. This is an indication that unlike the other Buddhist traditions the
Nyingmapas did not become institutionalised until much later in their history. From the 15th century onwards, great monastic universities were built, such as Mindroling, founded in 1676 by Rigzin Terdag Lingpa, otherwise known as Minling Terchen Gyurmed Dorje (1646-1714) and Dorje Drag founded in 1659 by Rigzin Ngagi Wangpo in central Tibet; and Palyul established by Rigzin Kunsang Sherab in 1665; Dzogchen built by Dzogchen Pema Rigzin in 1685 and Zhechen established by Zhechen Rabjampa in 1735, all in Kham province. Dodrupchen and Darthang monasteries were established in Amdo.
Principal monastic institutions re-established in exile are Thekchok Namdrol Shedrub Dargye Ling, in Bylakuppe, Karnataka State; Ngedon Gatsal Ling, in Clementown, Dehradun; Palyul Chokhor Ling and E-Vam Gyurmed Ling in Bir, and Nechung Drayang Ling at Dharamsala, and Thubten E-vam Dorjey Drag at Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, India.
The Nyingma tradition is presently headed by Dilgo Khyentse Rinpochey, who succeeds Kyabje Dudjom Rinpochey (1904?-1987). Besides, Minling Trichen Rinpochey, Trulzhig Rinpochey, Taglung Tsetrul Rinpochey and Penor Rinpochey are some of the living spiritual masters.
NB. The present head of Nyingmapa is His Holiness Penor Rinpoche.
om ma ni pad me ham
OM MANI PADME HUMBy His Holiness the Dalai Lama It is very good to recite the mantra Om mani padme hum, but while you are doing it, you should be thinking on its meaning, for the meaning of the six syllables is great and vast. The first, Om is composed of three letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the practitioner's impure body, speech, and mind; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech, and mind of a Buddha.
Can impure body, speech, and mind be transformed into pure body, speech, and mind, or are they entirely separate? All Buddhas are cases of beings who were like ourselves and then in dependence on the path became enlightened; Buddhism does not assert that there is anyone who from the beginning is free from faults and possesses all good qualities. The development of pure body, speech, and mind comes from gradually leaving the impure states arid their being transformed into the pure.
How is this done? The path is indicated by the next four syllables. Mani, meaning jewel, symbolizes the factors of method-the altruistic intention to become enlightened, compassion, and love. Just as a jewel is capable of removing poverty, so the altruistic mind of enlightenment is capable of removing the poverty, or difficulties, of cyclic existence and of solitary peace. Similarly, just as a jewel fulfills the wishes of sentient beings, so the altruistic intention to become enlightened fulfills the wishes of sentient beings.
The two syllables, padme, meaning lotus, symbolize wisdom. Just as a lotus grows forth from mud but is not sullied by the faults of mud, so wisdom is capable of putting you in a situation of non-contradiction whereas there would be contradiction if you did not have wisdom. There is wisdom realizing impermanence, wisdom realizing that persons are empty, of being self-sufficient or substantially existent, wisdom that realizes the emptiness of duality-that is to say, of difference of entity between subject an object-and wisdom that realizes the emptiness of inherent existence. Though there are many different types of wisdom, the main of all these is the wisdom realizing emptiness.
Purity must be achieved by an indivisible unity of method and wisdom, symbolized by the final syllable hum, which indicates indivisibility. According to the sutra system, this indivisibility of method and wisdom refers to wisdom affected by method and method affected by wisdom. In the mantra, or tantric, vehicle, it refers to one consciousness in which there is the full form of both wisdom and method as one undifferentiable entity. In terms of the seed syllables of the five Conqueror Buddhas, hum is the seed syllable of Akshobhya - the immovable, the unfluctuating, that which cannot be disturbed by anything.
Thus the six syllables, om mani padme hum, mean that in dependence on the practice of a path which is an indivisible union of method and wisdom, you can transform your impure body, speech, and mind into the pure exalted body, speech, and mind of a Buddha. It is said that you should not seek for Buddhahood outside of yourself; the substances for the achievement of Buddhahood are within. As Maitreya says in his Sublime Continuum of the Great Vehicle (Uttaratantra), all beings naturally have the Buddha nature in their own continuum. We have within us the seed of purity, the essence of a One Gone Thus (Tathagatagarbha), that is to be transformed and fully developed into Buddhahood.
Can impure body, speech, and mind be transformed into pure body, speech, and mind, or are they entirely separate? All Buddhas are cases of beings who were like ourselves and then in dependence on the path became enlightened; Buddhism does not assert that there is anyone who from the beginning is free from faults and possesses all good qualities. The development of pure body, speech, and mind comes from gradually leaving the impure states arid their being transformed into the pure.
How is this done? The path is indicated by the next four syllables. Mani, meaning jewel, symbolizes the factors of method-the altruistic intention to become enlightened, compassion, and love. Just as a jewel is capable of removing poverty, so the altruistic mind of enlightenment is capable of removing the poverty, or difficulties, of cyclic existence and of solitary peace. Similarly, just as a jewel fulfills the wishes of sentient beings, so the altruistic intention to become enlightened fulfills the wishes of sentient beings.
The two syllables, padme, meaning lotus, symbolize wisdom. Just as a lotus grows forth from mud but is not sullied by the faults of mud, so wisdom is capable of putting you in a situation of non-contradiction whereas there would be contradiction if you did not have wisdom. There is wisdom realizing impermanence, wisdom realizing that persons are empty, of being self-sufficient or substantially existent, wisdom that realizes the emptiness of duality-that is to say, of difference of entity between subject an object-and wisdom that realizes the emptiness of inherent existence. Though there are many different types of wisdom, the main of all these is the wisdom realizing emptiness.
Purity must be achieved by an indivisible unity of method and wisdom, symbolized by the final syllable hum, which indicates indivisibility. According to the sutra system, this indivisibility of method and wisdom refers to wisdom affected by method and method affected by wisdom. In the mantra, or tantric, vehicle, it refers to one consciousness in which there is the full form of both wisdom and method as one undifferentiable entity. In terms of the seed syllables of the five Conqueror Buddhas, hum is the seed syllable of Akshobhya - the immovable, the unfluctuating, that which cannot be disturbed by anything.
Thus the six syllables, om mani padme hum, mean that in dependence on the practice of a path which is an indivisible union of method and wisdom, you can transform your impure body, speech, and mind into the pure exalted body, speech, and mind of a Buddha. It is said that you should not seek for Buddhahood outside of yourself; the substances for the achievement of Buddhahood are within. As Maitreya says in his Sublime Continuum of the Great Vehicle (Uttaratantra), all beings naturally have the Buddha nature in their own continuum. We have within us the seed of purity, the essence of a One Gone Thus (Tathagatagarbha), that is to be transformed and fully developed into Buddhahood.
An Introduction to the Kalachakra
http://www.tibet.com/buddhism/kala.html
An Introduction to the Kalachakra
by Geshe Wangdrak (Losang Tenzin)of Namgyal Monastery
General Presentation of the Dharma
The Buddha's Dharma, can be divided to two vehicles, the Hinayana and the Mahayana. The Hinayana itself can divided into the vehicle of the shravakas and the vehicle of the pratyekabuddhas. The shravakas and pratyekabuddhas can be differentiated according to the relative inferiority and superiority of their faculties and the results they obtain, but the doctrinal features of the paths they follow are basically the same. People with a propensity to follow these two Hinayana vehicles take them up for the sake of merely their own emancipation, because they turn their backs on bearing the burden of the aims of others. Since the main cause of bondage in samsara is grasping at a self, the main cause of obtaining the freedom of liberation is the wisdom that realizes the meaning selflessness. Thus, shravakas and pratyekabuddhas, like bodhisattvas, realize selflessness. They meditate on is accompanied by the other paths of moral conduct, meditative concentration and so forth, and thus extinguish all their passions, greed, hatred, ignorance and so forth.
Even though Hinayanists do not engage in their path intending to obtain Buddhahood, their path is in fact a means for ultimately leading such people to the stage of buddhahood. Thus, do not misapprehend the Hinayana paths as being solely an obstacle to enlightenment, because the Saddharmapundarika sutra and other texts teach that they are methods for achieving Buddhahood. The Buddha appears in the world so that sentient beings may obtain the gnosis that he himself obtained. Thus, the Buddha's demonstrations of the path are strictly means to lead sentient beings to buddhahood. Even though the Hinayana paths do not lead directly to buddhahood, it is taught that followers of the Hinayana do in fact eventually enter the Mahayana and obtain buddhahood.
Although followers of the Hinayana, like followers of the Mahayana, realize that phenomena are devoid of own-being, it is not the case that there is no difference at all between the Hinayana and the Mahayana. The doctrines of the Mahayana do not merely illuminate the selflessness of phenomena, they teach the bodhisattva stages, the perfections, the prayer to achieve perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings, great compassion, and so forth. They also teach the dedication of merits to enlightenment, the two accumulations of merit and gnosis, and the inconceivable reality that is purified of all stains.
Thus, the Mahayana and Hinayana are not distinguished due to differences in their philosophical viewpoints, but they are differentiated according to their respective practice and non-practice of the entire range of skillful means. This is the assertion of Arya Nagarjuna and his disciple Aryadeva: A mother is the common cause of all her sons, and their fathers are the causes for distinguishing their races. Just so the mother, the perfection of wisdom, is the common cause of the sons, all four kinds of aryas: shravaka aryas, pratyekabuddha aryas, bodhisattava aryas, and buddha aryas. The cause for differentiating them into the particular Hinayana and Mahayana lineages is whether or not they have the methods of generating bodhichitta and so forth. The general Mahayana, like the Hinayana, can be subdivided into two vehicles: the Paramitayana and the Mantrayana. The common aim of the Mahayana is to train oneself in the six perfections by practising them out of a desire to obtain unexcelled enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. It is clear that one proceeds in the Mantrayana by this same path, because it is taught in the tantras. However, Mahayana practitioners who follow the paramitayana merely take up that much of the general body of the path, whereas followers of the Mantrayana cultivate the perfections by means of special tantric techniques that are not taught in the paramitayana.
The terms "Cause vehicle", "Paramitayana", and so forth are synonyms, and "Mantrayana", "Vajrayana", "Effect vehicle", and "Method vehicle" are synonyms as well. There is a difference between the cause vehicle and the effect vehicle: the cause vehicle is the Mahayana vehicle in which there is no meditation on oneself having a like aspect with any of the effects-the four complete purities-during the period of the path of training. The Mahayana vehicle in which there is meditation on oneself as having a like aspect with the four complete purities during the period of the path of training is called "The Effect vehicle" or "The Mantrayana". This is what the master Tsongkhapa said in the Ngag Rim Chenmo: "With regard to vehicle, since it is the vehicle of, i.e., conveys, the effect that is desired here and the cause that desires this, it is called 'vehicle'. The effect is the four complete purities of abode, body, property, and activities, a buddha's palace, body, wealth, and deeds. One meditates from the present on oneself as having a divine mansion, a divine entourage, divine ritual implements, and the divine deeds of purifying the cosmos and its inhabitants, just like a Buddha, Thus, it is the Effect Vehicle because one progresses through meditating in accordance with the vehicle of the effect."
Thus, the Mahayana as a whole is divided into the Paramitayana and the Mantrayana because these two have substantially different means for achieving a buddha's Form Body that accomplishes the aims of others. In general, the Hinayana and the Mahayana are not distinguished according to any difference in their wisdom of emptiness, but must be distinguished due to differences in their methods, as mentioned above. In particular, although the Mahayana is divided into the Paramitayana and the Mantrayana, this is not due to any difference in their wisdom that realizes the profound emptiness; the two Mahayana systems must be distinguished from the point of view of differences in their methods. The main aspect of method in the Mahayana is the portion dealing with achievement of the Form Body, and the method that achieves the Form Body in the Mantrayana is just the deity yoga of meditating on oneself as having an aspect similar to that of a Form Body. This method is superior to the method employed in the Paramitayana.
With regard to the disciples of the Mantrayana, there are four types: inferior, middling, superior, and most excellent. The four classes of tantra were taught with these four types of disciples in mind. Since the disciples enter the Mantrayana through the four classes of tantra, the four classes are likened to "four doors." Should you wonder what the four are, they are Ritual Tantra, Conduct Tantra, Yoga Tantra, and Unexcelled Yoga Tantra. The Kalachakra, which will be described below, belongs to the Unexcelled Yoga Tantra class.
An Account of the Kalachakra, or Wheel of Time
The entire meaning of the subject matter of the Kalachakra tantra is included within the three Kalachakras, or Wheels of Time: The Outer Wheel of Time, the Inner Wheel of Time, and the Other Wheel of Time. The Outer Wheel of Time is the external world of the environment, and it is also called "The procession of the external solar and lunar days." The Inner Wheel of Time is the human body, that is an inner Jambudvipa, or earth-surface. Likewise, the inner channels, elements, and movements of the winds are set forth as the Inner Wheels of Time. The Other Wheel of Time is the initiations and paths of Shri Kalachakra, together with their results. It is "other" than the preceding two Wheels of Time. The guru ripens the disciple's psycho-physical continuum with the initiations, and the disciple meditates on the path that consists of the generation process and the completion process. In this way the yogi actualizes the resultthe buddha body that is the divine image of emptiness. This is the Other Wheel of Time.
The Buddha's teaching of the Kalachakra is described in the Paramadibuddha, the Kalachakra, Basic Tantra:
"As the teacher demonstrated the Dharma on Vulture Heap according to the Perfection of Wisdom system, he also taught the mantra system at Shri Dhanyakataka. What teacher taught what tantra, when and where was he dwelling? What was the place, who was the worldly entourage, and what was the purpose?
"He taught the unexcelled Mahayana, the system of the Perfection of Wisdom, to the bodhisattvas on Mount Vulture Heap. Then at the same time the Tathagata dwelt together with bodhisattvas and others in the great stupa, in the mandala of the sphere of phenomena. He dwelt in the house of universal vajra, in space, immaterial and very lucid, unpartitioned and radiant. He taught the tantra in the beautiful sphere of phenomena, for the merit and gnosis of human beings."
The Basic Tantra also says: "Then Vajrapani's emanation, King Suchandra from famous Shambhala, miraculously entered into the splended sphere of phenomena. First he circumambulated to the right, then he worshipped the teacher's lotus feet with flowers made of jewels. Placing his hands together, Suchandra sat before the perfect Buddha. Suchandra requested the Buddha for the tantra, redacted it, and taught it too."
The Kalachakra was taught by our teacher, the Buddha Shakyamuni. He showed the way of actualizing highest perfect enlightenment underneath the bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya in India, at early dawn on the full moon of April/May. For one year he taught the general Paramitayana. In particular, at Mount Vulture Heap he turned the Dharma Wheel of the Perfection of Wisdom, the chief, ultimate Dharma Wheel of the Paramita system of the Mahayana.
On the full moon of March/April, the twelfth month counted from the time he obtained buddhahood, the Buddha was teaching the Paramitayana at Mount Vulture Heap. At the same time he manifested another form inside the great stupa of Shri Dhanyakataka, which is near Shri Parvata in south India where he taught the Mantrayana.
The great stupa was more than six leagues from top to bottom, and inside it the Buddha emitted two mandalas: below the mandala of Dharmadhatu Vagishvara, above the great mandala of the splendid asterisms. The Buddha was in the centre on the Vajra lion throne in the great Mandala of the Sphere of Vajra, the abode of great bliss. He was absorbed in the Kalachakra samadhi, and stood in the form of the Lord of the mandala.
The excellent entourage within the mandala consisted of a host of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, furies, gods, nagas, and goddesses. Outside the mandala the requestor was the emanated body of Vajrapani, King Suchandra of Shambhala. He had miraculously come to Shri Dhanyakataka from Shambhala, and he requested the Kalachakra for the entourage of listeners: the ninety-six emanated satraps of the ninety-six great lands within Shambhala, together with a limitless host of fortunate bodhisattvas, gods, demons, and others.
The Buddha gave the assembly the excellent Dharma-the worldly and transcendental initiations-and prophesied that they would obtain buddhahood, then he taught them the Paramadibuddha, the twelve thousand verse Kalachakra Basic Tantra. King Suchandra wrote it down in a volume and miraculously returned to Shambhala.
In Shambhala Suchandra composed a sixty thousand line commentary of the Basic Tantra. He also erected a Kalachakra mandala made of precious substances. After he had appointed his son Sureshvara as King and teacher of the tantra, he passed away. Many great Kings appeared in the dynasty of Shambhala: Kalki Yashas, Kalki Pundarika, and others. They caused the profound Dharma of the Kalachakra to shine like the sun and the moon.
The Kalachakra continued to be transmitted through the succession of kalkis ("chieftains") of Shambhala, and eventually it was reintroduced into India. There are two main stories of how this came about, the story told by the Ra tradition and the story of the Dro tradition. (The Ra tradition and the Dro tradition will be discussed below).
According to the Ra tradition, the Kalachakra and related commentaries famed as the Bodhisattvas Corpus appeared in India during the simultaneous reigns of three kings. Taking Bodh Gaya as the center, the three kings were: Dehopala, the Master of Elephants, in the East; Jauganga, the Master of Men, in the South; and Kanauj, the Master of Horses, in the West. At that time the great pandit Cilu, who mastered all aspects of the Buddhadharma, was born in Orissa, one of the five countries of eastern India. Cilu studied all the Buddhist texts at the Ratnagiri Vihara, Vikramashila, and Nalanda. In particular, he studied at the Ratnagiri Vihara that was undamaged by the Turks.
Cilu realized that, in general, in order to achieve buddhahood in a single lifetime he would need the Mantrayana, and in particular, that he would need the clarifications of these doctrines contained in the Bodhisattva commentaries. Knowing that these teachings were extant in Shambhala, and depending on the instruction of his deity, he joined up with traders who sought jewels in the ocean. Having agreed with the traders, who were setting out across the sea, to meet up after six months, they went separate ways.
Cilu proceeded in stages and finally, upon climbing a mountain, he met a man. The man asked him, "Where are you going?" Cilu replied, "I am going to Shambhala in search of the Bodhisattva Corpus." The man said, "It is extremely difficult to go there, but if you can understand it, you could listen to it even here." Cilu realized that the man was an emanation of Manjushri. He prostrated, offered a mandala, and requested instruction. The man conferred all the initiations, tantra commentaries, and oral instructions on Cilu. He grasped Cilu, placed a flower on his head, and blessed him, saying, "Realize the entire Bodhisattva Corpus." Thus, like water poured from one vessel into another, Cilu realized the entire Bodhisattva Corpus. He went back the way he had come and, meeting with the traders, he returned to Eastern India.
According to the Dro tradition, the Kalachakra was reintroduced into India by the master Kalachakrapada. A couple who practised the Yoga of Yamantaka performed the ritual for the birth of a son as it is taught in the Yamantaka Tantra, and had a son. When he grew up he learned that in the north the bodhisattvas themselves taught the Dharma, so he went to listen to them. With his psychic power the Kalki of Shambhala knew of the youth's pure motivation and enthusiasm for the profound Dharma. He knew that if the youth attempted to come to Shambhala it would endanger his life because of the waterless wasteland that takes four months to cross. Thus, the Kalki used an emanation body to meet the youth at the edge of the desert.
The Kalki asked the youth, "Where are you going, and why?" when the youth told him his intentions the Kalki said, "That road is very difficult. But if you can understand these things, couldn't you listen to them even here?" The youth realized that this was an emanation of the Kalki and asked him for instruction. Right there the Kalki initiated the youth, and for four months he taught him all the highest tantras especially the three Bodhisattva Corpus commentaries. Like a vase filled to the brim, the youth realized and memorized all the tantras. When he returned to India he became renowned as an emanation of Manjushri, and his name was "Kalachakrapada"
The Ra and Dro traditions say that the Kalachakra was introduced into India by Cilu and Kalachakrapada. The Kalachakra continued to be studied and practised in India, and it was eventually introduced into Tibet. Again, the Ra and Dro traditions are the two main lineages through which this occurred.
The Dro tradition started from the visit of the Kashmiri Pandit Somanatha to Tibet. Somanatha first arrived in Tibet at Kharag and stayed among the Ryo clan. For a fee of one hundred measures of gold Somanatha translated half of the great Kalachakra commentary, the Vimalaprabha, into Tibetan, but in the meantime he became displeased and stopped his work. He took the gold and his draft translation and went to Phan Yul drub. There Chung Wa of the Zhang clan took Somanatha as his guru, and Shayrabdrak of the Dro clan acted as translator. Somanatha and Shayrabdrak translated the entire Vimalaprabha.
The Dro tradition continued on to Lama ChöKu Özer. This lama mastered all of the teachings of the Dro clan, including the Kalachakra. His disciple was Lama Galo, who mastered both the Dro tradition and the Ra tradition and passed them on in a single combined lineage.
The Ra tradition started with Chorab of the Ra clan, the nephew of the famous translator Ra Dorjedrak who was born in Nyen Ma Mang Yul. Ra Chorab memorized and understood all the doctrines of the Ra clan. Then he wished to learn the Kalachakra, so he went to the centre of Nepal where he continuously served the Pandit Samantashri for five years, ten months, and five days. Samantashri explained all the Kalachakra texts and gave Chorab the initiations and oral instructions. Then Chorab invited Samantashri to Tibet where they carefully translated the Kalachakra tantra and its commentary, together with the auxiliary texts.
The Ra tradition continued through Ra Chorab's son and grandson, and it eventually came to Lama Galo, as mentioned before. Lama Galo passed on both the Dro and the Ra traditions, and his lineage continued through such masters as Buton Rinchendrub and Tsongkhapa. The study and practice of the Kalachakra based on the Ra and Dro traditions exists even today.
Practice of the Kalachakra tantra, like all Buddhist tantric systems, is based on first receiving the proper initiations. For the initiations to be properly given and received it is necessary that both the guru and the disciple have certain qualifications. The qualifications of the Mantrayana guru are described by Losang Chökyi Gyaltsen as follows: "He should have control over his body, speech, and mind. He should be very intelligent, patient, and undeceitful. He should know the mantras and tantras, understand reality, and be competent in composing and explaining texts". We are very fortunate that such gurus can be found even now.
The disciple should have experience of the three principal aspects of the Mahayana path: renunciation of samsara, bodhichitta, and understanding of emptiness. If the disciple has not actually experienced these, he or she should at least have intellectual familiarity with them and admiration for them.
The most important of the three aspects is bodhichitta, the primary motivation for taking the initiations. Lord Maitreya defined bodhichitta in his Abhisamayalankara: "Bodhichitta is the desire for true, perfect enlightenment for the sake of others". When applied to the specific circumstance of taking the Kalachakra initiations, the disciple should generate bodhichitta in the following manner: "For the sake of all sentient beings I must achieve the state of Shri Kalachakra. Then I will be able to establish all other sentient beings in the state of Shri Kalachakra as well". With this motivation one should take initiation.
The general aim of tantric initiations is that through the initiations the guru ripens the disciple's psycho-physical continuum. Here "ripening" means empowering the disciple to practise the yoga of the generation process and the completion process. In particular, the Kalachakra initiations empower the disciple to practise the yoga of the Kalachakra tantra, and, ultimately, to achieve the state of Shri Kalachakra.
There are eleven Kalachakra initiations: seven initiations of "entering like a child", three "exalted" initiations, and one "most exalted" initiation. Disciples who are temporarily intent on just the worldly siddhis (magical or mystical accomplishments) are given only the seven lower initiations. Those who are mainly interested in the transcendental siddhi of buddhahood are given all eleven initiations. The first of the seven initiations of entering like a child is the water initiation. This is analagous to a mother washing her child immediately after its birth. The second initiation is the crown initiation that is analogous. to the binding of a child's hairlocks. The third, ribbon initiation is analogous to piercing a child's ears and arraying it with ornaments. The fourth initiation, the vajra and bell initiation, is analagous to a child laughing and talking. The fifth initiation is the discipline initiation, it is analagous to the child's enjoyment of the five desirable sense-objects. Sixth is the name initiation, analagous to the naming of the child. The seventh, and final, initiation of entering like a child is the mantra authorization initiation. This initiation empowers the disciple to eliminate obstacles and to achieve the magic powers of pacification, gaining prosperity, subjugation, and destruction.
The three exalted initiations are as follows: the vase initiation is the gnosis of bliss and emptiness that arises from the disciple touching the consort's breasts. The secret initiation is the gnosis of bliss and emptiness that arises from the disciple savouring the bodhichitta, The wisdom-gnosis initiation is the experience of connate joy that arises from the disciple and consort themselves engaging in union.
The most exalted initiation is also called "the fourth initiation" or "the word initiation" The previous great wisdom-gnosis initiation empowers the disciple to achieve the eleventh bodhisattva stage. Then the guru symbolically indicates the Gnosis Body that is the integration of supreme unchanging great bliss and emptiness possessing the best of all aspects. Saying, "This is it", the guru bestows the fourth initiation on the disciple. This initiation empowers the disciple to obtain perfect buddhahood in the form of Shri Kalachakra.
Translated from the Tibetan and edited by John Newman Translator's note: 'or more information on the subjects touched on in this essay the reader is advised to see: Dalai Lama, Kalachakra Tantra Initiation Rites and Practices (London: Wisdom Publications, 1985), and Geshe Lhundup Sopa eral, The Wheel of Time: The Kalachakra in Context (Madison. Wisconsin USA: Deer Park Books, 1985).
Kalachakra Initiations by the fourteenth Dalai Lama
1. Norbu Lingka, Lhasa, Tibet, in May 1954
2. Norbu Lingka, Lhasa, Tibet, in April 1956
3. Dharamsala, India, in March 1970
4. Bylakuppe, South India, in May 1971
5. Bodh Gaya, India, in December 1974
6. Leh, Ladakh, India, in September 1976
7. Madison, USA, in July 1981
8. Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, India, in April 1983
9. Lahaul & Spiti, India, in August 1983
10. Rikon, Switzerland, in July 1985
11. Bodh Gaya, India, in December 1985
12. Zanskar, Ladakh, India, in July 1988
13. Los Angeles, USA, in July 1989
14. Sarnath, India, in December 1990
15. New York, USA, in October 1991
16. Kalpa, HP, India, in August 1992
17. Gangtok, Sikkim, India, in April 1993
18. Jispa, HP, India, in August 1994
19. Barcelona, Spain, in December 1994
20. Mundgod, South India, in January 1995
21. Ulanbaator, Mongolia, in August 1995
22. Tabo, HP, India, in June 1996
23. Sydney, Australia, in September 1996
24. Salugara, West Bengal, India, in December 1996
An Introduction to the Kalachakra
by Geshe Wangdrak (Losang Tenzin)of Namgyal Monastery
General Presentation of the Dharma
The Buddha's Dharma, can be divided to two vehicles, the Hinayana and the Mahayana. The Hinayana itself can divided into the vehicle of the shravakas and the vehicle of the pratyekabuddhas. The shravakas and pratyekabuddhas can be differentiated according to the relative inferiority and superiority of their faculties and the results they obtain, but the doctrinal features of the paths they follow are basically the same. People with a propensity to follow these two Hinayana vehicles take them up for the sake of merely their own emancipation, because they turn their backs on bearing the burden of the aims of others. Since the main cause of bondage in samsara is grasping at a self, the main cause of obtaining the freedom of liberation is the wisdom that realizes the meaning selflessness. Thus, shravakas and pratyekabuddhas, like bodhisattvas, realize selflessness. They meditate on is accompanied by the other paths of moral conduct, meditative concentration and so forth, and thus extinguish all their passions, greed, hatred, ignorance and so forth.
Even though Hinayanists do not engage in their path intending to obtain Buddhahood, their path is in fact a means for ultimately leading such people to the stage of buddhahood. Thus, do not misapprehend the Hinayana paths as being solely an obstacle to enlightenment, because the Saddharmapundarika sutra and other texts teach that they are methods for achieving Buddhahood. The Buddha appears in the world so that sentient beings may obtain the gnosis that he himself obtained. Thus, the Buddha's demonstrations of the path are strictly means to lead sentient beings to buddhahood. Even though the Hinayana paths do not lead directly to buddhahood, it is taught that followers of the Hinayana do in fact eventually enter the Mahayana and obtain buddhahood.
Although followers of the Hinayana, like followers of the Mahayana, realize that phenomena are devoid of own-being, it is not the case that there is no difference at all between the Hinayana and the Mahayana. The doctrines of the Mahayana do not merely illuminate the selflessness of phenomena, they teach the bodhisattva stages, the perfections, the prayer to achieve perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings, great compassion, and so forth. They also teach the dedication of merits to enlightenment, the two accumulations of merit and gnosis, and the inconceivable reality that is purified of all stains.
Thus, the Mahayana and Hinayana are not distinguished due to differences in their philosophical viewpoints, but they are differentiated according to their respective practice and non-practice of the entire range of skillful means. This is the assertion of Arya Nagarjuna and his disciple Aryadeva: A mother is the common cause of all her sons, and their fathers are the causes for distinguishing their races. Just so the mother, the perfection of wisdom, is the common cause of the sons, all four kinds of aryas: shravaka aryas, pratyekabuddha aryas, bodhisattava aryas, and buddha aryas. The cause for differentiating them into the particular Hinayana and Mahayana lineages is whether or not they have the methods of generating bodhichitta and so forth. The general Mahayana, like the Hinayana, can be subdivided into two vehicles: the Paramitayana and the Mantrayana. The common aim of the Mahayana is to train oneself in the six perfections by practising them out of a desire to obtain unexcelled enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. It is clear that one proceeds in the Mantrayana by this same path, because it is taught in the tantras. However, Mahayana practitioners who follow the paramitayana merely take up that much of the general body of the path, whereas followers of the Mantrayana cultivate the perfections by means of special tantric techniques that are not taught in the paramitayana.
The terms "Cause vehicle", "Paramitayana", and so forth are synonyms, and "Mantrayana", "Vajrayana", "Effect vehicle", and "Method vehicle" are synonyms as well. There is a difference between the cause vehicle and the effect vehicle: the cause vehicle is the Mahayana vehicle in which there is no meditation on oneself having a like aspect with any of the effects-the four complete purities-during the period of the path of training. The Mahayana vehicle in which there is meditation on oneself as having a like aspect with the four complete purities during the period of the path of training is called "The Effect vehicle" or "The Mantrayana". This is what the master Tsongkhapa said in the Ngag Rim Chenmo: "With regard to vehicle, since it is the vehicle of, i.e., conveys, the effect that is desired here and the cause that desires this, it is called 'vehicle'. The effect is the four complete purities of abode, body, property, and activities, a buddha's palace, body, wealth, and deeds. One meditates from the present on oneself as having a divine mansion, a divine entourage, divine ritual implements, and the divine deeds of purifying the cosmos and its inhabitants, just like a Buddha, Thus, it is the Effect Vehicle because one progresses through meditating in accordance with the vehicle of the effect."
Thus, the Mahayana as a whole is divided into the Paramitayana and the Mantrayana because these two have substantially different means for achieving a buddha's Form Body that accomplishes the aims of others. In general, the Hinayana and the Mahayana are not distinguished according to any difference in their wisdom of emptiness, but must be distinguished due to differences in their methods, as mentioned above. In particular, although the Mahayana is divided into the Paramitayana and the Mantrayana, this is not due to any difference in their wisdom that realizes the profound emptiness; the two Mahayana systems must be distinguished from the point of view of differences in their methods. The main aspect of method in the Mahayana is the portion dealing with achievement of the Form Body, and the method that achieves the Form Body in the Mantrayana is just the deity yoga of meditating on oneself as having an aspect similar to that of a Form Body. This method is superior to the method employed in the Paramitayana.
With regard to the disciples of the Mantrayana, there are four types: inferior, middling, superior, and most excellent. The four classes of tantra were taught with these four types of disciples in mind. Since the disciples enter the Mantrayana through the four classes of tantra, the four classes are likened to "four doors." Should you wonder what the four are, they are Ritual Tantra, Conduct Tantra, Yoga Tantra, and Unexcelled Yoga Tantra. The Kalachakra, which will be described below, belongs to the Unexcelled Yoga Tantra class.
An Account of the Kalachakra, or Wheel of Time
The entire meaning of the subject matter of the Kalachakra tantra is included within the three Kalachakras, or Wheels of Time: The Outer Wheel of Time, the Inner Wheel of Time, and the Other Wheel of Time. The Outer Wheel of Time is the external world of the environment, and it is also called "The procession of the external solar and lunar days." The Inner Wheel of Time is the human body, that is an inner Jambudvipa, or earth-surface. Likewise, the inner channels, elements, and movements of the winds are set forth as the Inner Wheels of Time. The Other Wheel of Time is the initiations and paths of Shri Kalachakra, together with their results. It is "other" than the preceding two Wheels of Time. The guru ripens the disciple's psycho-physical continuum with the initiations, and the disciple meditates on the path that consists of the generation process and the completion process. In this way the yogi actualizes the resultthe buddha body that is the divine image of emptiness. This is the Other Wheel of Time.
The Buddha's teaching of the Kalachakra is described in the Paramadibuddha, the Kalachakra, Basic Tantra:
"As the teacher demonstrated the Dharma on Vulture Heap according to the Perfection of Wisdom system, he also taught the mantra system at Shri Dhanyakataka. What teacher taught what tantra, when and where was he dwelling? What was the place, who was the worldly entourage, and what was the purpose?
"He taught the unexcelled Mahayana, the system of the Perfection of Wisdom, to the bodhisattvas on Mount Vulture Heap. Then at the same time the Tathagata dwelt together with bodhisattvas and others in the great stupa, in the mandala of the sphere of phenomena. He dwelt in the house of universal vajra, in space, immaterial and very lucid, unpartitioned and radiant. He taught the tantra in the beautiful sphere of phenomena, for the merit and gnosis of human beings."
The Basic Tantra also says: "Then Vajrapani's emanation, King Suchandra from famous Shambhala, miraculously entered into the splended sphere of phenomena. First he circumambulated to the right, then he worshipped the teacher's lotus feet with flowers made of jewels. Placing his hands together, Suchandra sat before the perfect Buddha. Suchandra requested the Buddha for the tantra, redacted it, and taught it too."
The Kalachakra was taught by our teacher, the Buddha Shakyamuni. He showed the way of actualizing highest perfect enlightenment underneath the bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya in India, at early dawn on the full moon of April/May. For one year he taught the general Paramitayana. In particular, at Mount Vulture Heap he turned the Dharma Wheel of the Perfection of Wisdom, the chief, ultimate Dharma Wheel of the Paramita system of the Mahayana.
On the full moon of March/April, the twelfth month counted from the time he obtained buddhahood, the Buddha was teaching the Paramitayana at Mount Vulture Heap. At the same time he manifested another form inside the great stupa of Shri Dhanyakataka, which is near Shri Parvata in south India where he taught the Mantrayana.
The great stupa was more than six leagues from top to bottom, and inside it the Buddha emitted two mandalas: below the mandala of Dharmadhatu Vagishvara, above the great mandala of the splendid asterisms. The Buddha was in the centre on the Vajra lion throne in the great Mandala of the Sphere of Vajra, the abode of great bliss. He was absorbed in the Kalachakra samadhi, and stood in the form of the Lord of the mandala.
The excellent entourage within the mandala consisted of a host of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, furies, gods, nagas, and goddesses. Outside the mandala the requestor was the emanated body of Vajrapani, King Suchandra of Shambhala. He had miraculously come to Shri Dhanyakataka from Shambhala, and he requested the Kalachakra for the entourage of listeners: the ninety-six emanated satraps of the ninety-six great lands within Shambhala, together with a limitless host of fortunate bodhisattvas, gods, demons, and others.
The Buddha gave the assembly the excellent Dharma-the worldly and transcendental initiations-and prophesied that they would obtain buddhahood, then he taught them the Paramadibuddha, the twelve thousand verse Kalachakra Basic Tantra. King Suchandra wrote it down in a volume and miraculously returned to Shambhala.
In Shambhala Suchandra composed a sixty thousand line commentary of the Basic Tantra. He also erected a Kalachakra mandala made of precious substances. After he had appointed his son Sureshvara as King and teacher of the tantra, he passed away. Many great Kings appeared in the dynasty of Shambhala: Kalki Yashas, Kalki Pundarika, and others. They caused the profound Dharma of the Kalachakra to shine like the sun and the moon.
The Kalachakra continued to be transmitted through the succession of kalkis ("chieftains") of Shambhala, and eventually it was reintroduced into India. There are two main stories of how this came about, the story told by the Ra tradition and the story of the Dro tradition. (The Ra tradition and the Dro tradition will be discussed below).
According to the Ra tradition, the Kalachakra and related commentaries famed as the Bodhisattvas Corpus appeared in India during the simultaneous reigns of three kings. Taking Bodh Gaya as the center, the three kings were: Dehopala, the Master of Elephants, in the East; Jauganga, the Master of Men, in the South; and Kanauj, the Master of Horses, in the West. At that time the great pandit Cilu, who mastered all aspects of the Buddhadharma, was born in Orissa, one of the five countries of eastern India. Cilu studied all the Buddhist texts at the Ratnagiri Vihara, Vikramashila, and Nalanda. In particular, he studied at the Ratnagiri Vihara that was undamaged by the Turks.
Cilu realized that, in general, in order to achieve buddhahood in a single lifetime he would need the Mantrayana, and in particular, that he would need the clarifications of these doctrines contained in the Bodhisattva commentaries. Knowing that these teachings were extant in Shambhala, and depending on the instruction of his deity, he joined up with traders who sought jewels in the ocean. Having agreed with the traders, who were setting out across the sea, to meet up after six months, they went separate ways.
Cilu proceeded in stages and finally, upon climbing a mountain, he met a man. The man asked him, "Where are you going?" Cilu replied, "I am going to Shambhala in search of the Bodhisattva Corpus." The man said, "It is extremely difficult to go there, but if you can understand it, you could listen to it even here." Cilu realized that the man was an emanation of Manjushri. He prostrated, offered a mandala, and requested instruction. The man conferred all the initiations, tantra commentaries, and oral instructions on Cilu. He grasped Cilu, placed a flower on his head, and blessed him, saying, "Realize the entire Bodhisattva Corpus." Thus, like water poured from one vessel into another, Cilu realized the entire Bodhisattva Corpus. He went back the way he had come and, meeting with the traders, he returned to Eastern India.
According to the Dro tradition, the Kalachakra was reintroduced into India by the master Kalachakrapada. A couple who practised the Yoga of Yamantaka performed the ritual for the birth of a son as it is taught in the Yamantaka Tantra, and had a son. When he grew up he learned that in the north the bodhisattvas themselves taught the Dharma, so he went to listen to them. With his psychic power the Kalki of Shambhala knew of the youth's pure motivation and enthusiasm for the profound Dharma. He knew that if the youth attempted to come to Shambhala it would endanger his life because of the waterless wasteland that takes four months to cross. Thus, the Kalki used an emanation body to meet the youth at the edge of the desert.
The Kalki asked the youth, "Where are you going, and why?" when the youth told him his intentions the Kalki said, "That road is very difficult. But if you can understand these things, couldn't you listen to them even here?" The youth realized that this was an emanation of the Kalki and asked him for instruction. Right there the Kalki initiated the youth, and for four months he taught him all the highest tantras especially the three Bodhisattva Corpus commentaries. Like a vase filled to the brim, the youth realized and memorized all the tantras. When he returned to India he became renowned as an emanation of Manjushri, and his name was "Kalachakrapada"
The Ra and Dro traditions say that the Kalachakra was introduced into India by Cilu and Kalachakrapada. The Kalachakra continued to be studied and practised in India, and it was eventually introduced into Tibet. Again, the Ra and Dro traditions are the two main lineages through which this occurred.
The Dro tradition started from the visit of the Kashmiri Pandit Somanatha to Tibet. Somanatha first arrived in Tibet at Kharag and stayed among the Ryo clan. For a fee of one hundred measures of gold Somanatha translated half of the great Kalachakra commentary, the Vimalaprabha, into Tibetan, but in the meantime he became displeased and stopped his work. He took the gold and his draft translation and went to Phan Yul drub. There Chung Wa of the Zhang clan took Somanatha as his guru, and Shayrabdrak of the Dro clan acted as translator. Somanatha and Shayrabdrak translated the entire Vimalaprabha.
The Dro tradition continued on to Lama ChöKu Özer. This lama mastered all of the teachings of the Dro clan, including the Kalachakra. His disciple was Lama Galo, who mastered both the Dro tradition and the Ra tradition and passed them on in a single combined lineage.
The Ra tradition started with Chorab of the Ra clan, the nephew of the famous translator Ra Dorjedrak who was born in Nyen Ma Mang Yul. Ra Chorab memorized and understood all the doctrines of the Ra clan. Then he wished to learn the Kalachakra, so he went to the centre of Nepal where he continuously served the Pandit Samantashri for five years, ten months, and five days. Samantashri explained all the Kalachakra texts and gave Chorab the initiations and oral instructions. Then Chorab invited Samantashri to Tibet where they carefully translated the Kalachakra tantra and its commentary, together with the auxiliary texts.
The Ra tradition continued through Ra Chorab's son and grandson, and it eventually came to Lama Galo, as mentioned before. Lama Galo passed on both the Dro and the Ra traditions, and his lineage continued through such masters as Buton Rinchendrub and Tsongkhapa. The study and practice of the Kalachakra based on the Ra and Dro traditions exists even today.
Practice of the Kalachakra tantra, like all Buddhist tantric systems, is based on first receiving the proper initiations. For the initiations to be properly given and received it is necessary that both the guru and the disciple have certain qualifications. The qualifications of the Mantrayana guru are described by Losang Chökyi Gyaltsen as follows: "He should have control over his body, speech, and mind. He should be very intelligent, patient, and undeceitful. He should know the mantras and tantras, understand reality, and be competent in composing and explaining texts". We are very fortunate that such gurus can be found even now.
The disciple should have experience of the three principal aspects of the Mahayana path: renunciation of samsara, bodhichitta, and understanding of emptiness. If the disciple has not actually experienced these, he or she should at least have intellectual familiarity with them and admiration for them.
The most important of the three aspects is bodhichitta, the primary motivation for taking the initiations. Lord Maitreya defined bodhichitta in his Abhisamayalankara: "Bodhichitta is the desire for true, perfect enlightenment for the sake of others". When applied to the specific circumstance of taking the Kalachakra initiations, the disciple should generate bodhichitta in the following manner: "For the sake of all sentient beings I must achieve the state of Shri Kalachakra. Then I will be able to establish all other sentient beings in the state of Shri Kalachakra as well". With this motivation one should take initiation.
The general aim of tantric initiations is that through the initiations the guru ripens the disciple's psycho-physical continuum. Here "ripening" means empowering the disciple to practise the yoga of the generation process and the completion process. In particular, the Kalachakra initiations empower the disciple to practise the yoga of the Kalachakra tantra, and, ultimately, to achieve the state of Shri Kalachakra.
There are eleven Kalachakra initiations: seven initiations of "entering like a child", three "exalted" initiations, and one "most exalted" initiation. Disciples who are temporarily intent on just the worldly siddhis (magical or mystical accomplishments) are given only the seven lower initiations. Those who are mainly interested in the transcendental siddhi of buddhahood are given all eleven initiations. The first of the seven initiations of entering like a child is the water initiation. This is analagous to a mother washing her child immediately after its birth. The second initiation is the crown initiation that is analogous. to the binding of a child's hairlocks. The third, ribbon initiation is analogous to piercing a child's ears and arraying it with ornaments. The fourth initiation, the vajra and bell initiation, is analagous to a child laughing and talking. The fifth initiation is the discipline initiation, it is analagous to the child's enjoyment of the five desirable sense-objects. Sixth is the name initiation, analagous to the naming of the child. The seventh, and final, initiation of entering like a child is the mantra authorization initiation. This initiation empowers the disciple to eliminate obstacles and to achieve the magic powers of pacification, gaining prosperity, subjugation, and destruction.
The three exalted initiations are as follows: the vase initiation is the gnosis of bliss and emptiness that arises from the disciple touching the consort's breasts. The secret initiation is the gnosis of bliss and emptiness that arises from the disciple savouring the bodhichitta, The wisdom-gnosis initiation is the experience of connate joy that arises from the disciple and consort themselves engaging in union.
The most exalted initiation is also called "the fourth initiation" or "the word initiation" The previous great wisdom-gnosis initiation empowers the disciple to achieve the eleventh bodhisattva stage. Then the guru symbolically indicates the Gnosis Body that is the integration of supreme unchanging great bliss and emptiness possessing the best of all aspects. Saying, "This is it", the guru bestows the fourth initiation on the disciple. This initiation empowers the disciple to obtain perfect buddhahood in the form of Shri Kalachakra.
Translated from the Tibetan and edited by John Newman Translator's note: 'or more information on the subjects touched on in this essay the reader is advised to see: Dalai Lama, Kalachakra Tantra Initiation Rites and Practices (London: Wisdom Publications, 1985), and Geshe Lhundup Sopa eral, The Wheel of Time: The Kalachakra in Context (Madison. Wisconsin USA: Deer Park Books, 1985).
Kalachakra Initiations by the fourteenth Dalai Lama
1. Norbu Lingka, Lhasa, Tibet, in May 1954
2. Norbu Lingka, Lhasa, Tibet, in April 1956
3. Dharamsala, India, in March 1970
4. Bylakuppe, South India, in May 1971
5. Bodh Gaya, India, in December 1974
6. Leh, Ladakh, India, in September 1976
7. Madison, USA, in July 1981
8. Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, India, in April 1983
9. Lahaul & Spiti, India, in August 1983
10. Rikon, Switzerland, in July 1985
11. Bodh Gaya, India, in December 1985
12. Zanskar, Ladakh, India, in July 1988
13. Los Angeles, USA, in July 1989
14. Sarnath, India, in December 1990
15. New York, USA, in October 1991
16. Kalpa, HP, India, in August 1992
17. Gangtok, Sikkim, India, in April 1993
18. Jispa, HP, India, in August 1994
19. Barcelona, Spain, in December 1994
20. Mundgod, South India, in January 1995
21. Ulanbaator, Mongolia, in August 1995
22. Tabo, HP, India, in June 1996
23. Sydney, Australia, in September 1996
24. Salugara, West Bengal, India, in December 1996
赤松德赞
http://www.dymf.cn/Article/ccyl/2007-02-08/601.html 赤松德赞是藏王美.阿克宗钦与文成公主(唐皇李隆基之女金城公主)之子。十三岁时成为西藏秋嘉王朝第三十七代藏王。二十岁时他发心弘扬正法，从天竺（今印度）迎请堪布寂护入藏以树立圣教法幢。810年(金虎年)从天竺（今印度）迎请莲花生大士进藏,当时莲师已一千多岁了。莲师降服了人与非人的种种障碍，使藏地的鬼神都发誓护持正法。修建桑耶寺为禅修、传法、翻译的重要场所，敕令贝若扎那等诸大译师、班智达，将显密正法如大海般作了翻译、弘扬。赤松德赞是莲师在西藏的上首弟子。在桑耶主寺的二楼大殿里，莲师把《龙钦宁提》法门及其心意付嘱传承传给了赤松德赞、益西措嘉和贝若扎纳。赤松德藏乃文殊化身，为莲师之法嗣。于不动等持中任运成就。撰著了《般若正量教诫论》及《十万大疏》等论典。复幻化出十四俱胝兵众，统领了南瞻部洲三分之二，并于印度莲花塔中请出佛陀舍利。法王赤松德赞法政一切所作圆满成办后，世寿69岁色身融入幻化之本源圣文殊菩萨心间。
寂护(Santiraksita 705~762)
寂护(Santiraksita 705~762)
印度佛教僧人。今印度比哈尔邦人。早年出家，为大乘佛教自续中观派创始人清辨的五传弟子，在当时印度佛教界以精于因明而知名。曾住那烂陀寺。743年受吐蕃赞普赤德祖赞之请入吐蕃传教，在拉萨主持翻译佛教典籍为藏文事宜。因受本教势力抵制，停留4个月，即去尼泊尔居住达6年之久。其间曾举荐莲花生入吐蕃传教。749年再度至吐蕃，曾主持第一座建有僧伽组织的桑耶寺尊基仪式。建寺后，为7名贵族子弟剃度出家，史称“七觉士”。762年在埕蕃被马踢伤致死。其所倡自续中观派论点，对后世藏传佛教一些流派有直接影响。著有《摄真实论》等。
印度佛教僧人。今印度比哈尔邦人。早年出家，为大乘佛教自续中观派创始人清辨的五传弟子，在当时印度佛教界以精于因明而知名。曾住那烂陀寺。743年受吐蕃赞普赤德祖赞之请入吐蕃传教，在拉萨主持翻译佛教典籍为藏文事宜。因受本教势力抵制，停留4个月，即去尼泊尔居住达6年之久。其间曾举荐莲花生入吐蕃传教。749年再度至吐蕃，曾主持第一座建有僧伽组织的桑耶寺尊基仪式。建寺后，为7名贵族子弟剃度出家，史称“七觉士”。762年在埕蕃被马踢伤致死。其所倡自续中观派论点，对后世藏传佛教一些流派有直接影响。著有《摄真实论》等。
桑耶寺
桑耶寺
素有“西藏第一座寺庙”美称的桑耶寺，位于山南扎囊县雅鲁藏布江北岸的扎玛山麓,距离泽当镇38公里，是藏传佛教史上第一座佛、法、僧三宝俱全的寺庙。
桑耶寺于公元762年开始兴建。寺院选址于藏王赤松德赞的出生地，藏王赤德祖赞的冬宫附近。由莲花生大师主持桑耶的建设，建筑仍保持寂护大师的原设计，赤松德赞亲自主持了奠基。
寺院于公元779年建成后，赤松德赞邀请印度、汉地、于阗等地僧人住寺讲经弘法，为寺庙做了许多工作。剃度七名贵族子弟出家为僧为其中之一，这七人因而成为西藏第一批真正的住寺僧人。剃度为僧的数年后，这七人都被委任为讲经的规范师，被后人奉为西藏藏传佛教的先驱者，声名显赫于佛教界和西藏的历史，史称“桑耶七觉士”。赤松德赞弘佛抑苯，并宣布吐蕃全民信仰佛教。
桑耶寺以其殿塔林立，楼阁高阔，规模宏大，融合了藏、汉、印三种风格而造型完美的建筑和题材广博，技艺高超，绘塑精湛的壁画造像，以及众多木雕石刻、唐嘎等文物瑰宝而驰名于世。桑耶寺周围绿树成荫，河渠萦绕，是国家级雅砻风景名胜区的主要景区之一。
< 参观要点
桑耶寺在建筑上可谓内涵丰厚，据说整体结构是仿照古印度婆罗王朝位于摩羯陀的欧丹达菩黎寺建造，依照佛经中的大千世界布局。居中的乌策大殿代表须弥山，环绕的圆形围墙象征大千世界最外围的铁围山，平面近似坛城（曼陀罗）。其间，有象征日月的太阳、月亮殿，代表四大天王的四座佛塔，表示四方咸海中的四大洲和八小洲的各殿堂。
桑耶寺壁画内容丰富，最著名的当属长达92米的“史记”，内容讲述了宗教对藏地历史的描述和久远的传说。另外还有“莲花生传记”（位于二层明廊南侧）、“桑耶寺全景图”，以及描述藏族先民风土人情的各类壁画。
桑耶寺圆形“铁围山”围墙以内是芸芸众生所在的尘俗世界，众多塔殿可以随意参观，唯一卖票的地方是“世界中心”一乌策大殿。>【传说】
第五代赞普赤松德赞为唐朝金城公主之子，据说其出生后还曾围绕着他上演了一出藏族版本的《狸猫换太子》的故事，可正所谓少时蹉跎日后却必成大器--赤松德赞后来在藏族历史上被称为“师君三尊”之一。
公元754年赤松德赞执政以后为巩固政权的需要，设计除掉了崇苯的大臣，大力在雪域高原弘扬佛法抑制苯教。为此，他曾经先后两次延请“外国专家”一从印度迎请了高僧寂护，从乌杖那国请来了密宗大师莲花生入藏传经，使佛教由此开始在雪域高原扎下了根来。
赤松德赞后又授命寂护建造西藏历史上第一座寺庙桑耶寺，但建寺过程中却屡建屡垮，原因据说是此地妖气很盛，鬼魔横行。想来寂护大师大概属于书卷气较重空有满腹经纶那类“文化人”，对于这些邪魔外道就好像是“秀才遇上了兵”，一点儿招也没有。看着寺庙老是建不起来，英明的赤松德赞国王那个急的，慌忙就把精通密宗咒术擅长降魔伏妖的莲花生请来帮忙，估计是病急乱投医，国王就当大师是一柔道黑带高手使了。不过大师也拽的厉害，和邪魔外道们飞沙走石一顿开打，其间自然免不了在四处空中来水里去的(要不然现在桑耶和山南一带怎么会留下那么多“战斗遗址”)，街边混混们玩真的哪儿玩得过武林正派，何况还是一“外援”，最后终于邪不压正，妖魔们被一顿暴扁打的是鼻青睑肿落花流水，最后有的是流落异乡，逃到了偏僻的藏东崇山峻岭中；有的是“阵前起义”，被大师招安改编成“政府军”--成了佛教的护法神。桑耶寺的由来还有一段故事。桑耶寺，藏文意为“吉祥永固天成桑耶大伽蓝”，又或者“无边寺”、“超出意想寺”、“三样寺”等名称，但一般总称为“桑耶寺”。相传，赤松德赞请来莲花生大师为其建寺传法后，为了满足一下国王急于见到寺庙建好后景象的迫切之心，莲花生施展法术，在自己的手心变幻出了寺院的幻影，赤松德赞见此景大惊，惊呼：“桑耶！”(“出乎意料”的意思)于是该寺得名“桑耶寺”。
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桑耶寺的建筑规模宏大，布局奇特，初入寺中，也许会被鳞次栉比殿塔林立的奇怪布局所迷惑，但你如果了解了这些单独建筑所蕴涵的意义和在整个寺庙布局中所起的作用以后，你一定会为这座在建筑史上无与伦比的辉煌建筑群所倾倒、所折服。
桑耶寺的建筑，据说是仿照古印度婆罗王朝在摩揭陀所建的欧丹达菩黎寺为蓝本而建的，全寺的建筑完全按照佛经中的大干世界布局：中央为世界中心须弥山，由一座藏、汉、天竺三种风格的三层“邬孜大殿”代表，大殿南北又建太阳、月亮两殿，象征宇宙中的日、月双轮，邬孜大殿四个角上分别建有红、白、绿、黑四座佛塔，代表四大天王，大殿四周还均匀分布着4大殿和8小殿，表示四方咸海中的四大部洲和八小洲：寺庙建筑群的外围是一道圆形的围墙所环绕，象征着世界外围的铁圉山。整个寺庙的建筑布局又和密宗的曼荼罗(坛城)有几分相似。
如果你还为纷繁复杂的建筑所困的话，那么欣赏整个寺庙精妙布局的最好的地方就在邬孜大殿的顶层。在顶层居高四望，东南西北四个方向的分别是江白林、阿雅巴律林、强巴林、桑结林四大部洲，周围可见八小洲、日月殿和白黑绿红四塔星罗拱卫，精湛的构思巧妙的布局，将会让你叹为观止。唯一美中不足的是，在大殿正门右前方，寺院自己新修了一座旅馆，大小与四大部洲殿相仿，在整个建筑布局中和整体风格不太协调，显得很突兀。不过这倒是方便了你我这样的旅行者。另外，在这个代表大干世界的小宇宙般的建筑群中，能有一座“属于”旅行者的建筑在我看来倒颇有点象征意义，它大概象征着旅行者和修行者最终的殊途同归吧。
乌策大殿是桑耶寺的主殿，位于全寺的中心地带。大殿坐西向东，高为三层，底为藏式风格，中层为汉式，顶层为印度样式，因此“三样寺”的名称就是由此而来的。大殿和甬道回廊里均绘满了各种题材的壁画。除了一些你在其他寺庙里也能看到的传统的宗教绘画外，在桑耶寺邬孜大殿内围墙中层廊道上有著名的“西藏史”壁画，画中记载了从远古传说的罗刹女与神猴结合繁衍藏族开始，一直到宗喀巴创立格鲁派，止于九世达赖业绩。壁画长92米，洋洋洒洒，恢弘壮丽，被誉为西藏的“绘画史记”。此外在邬孜大殿一层和二层有“桑耶寺史记”，二层的南侧有“莲花生传记”等精美的壁画。在大殿门口左侧，有一块古老的石碑，上面记录了赤松德赞于公元779年发布的正式以佛教为吐蕃国教的敕令。大门正廊上还挂着一口历经千年的唐式古钟，这是西藏历史上铸造的第一口铜钟。据说是为纪念赤松德赞第三妃没卢氏(又有一说叫“菩提氏”)，她带领三十名贵族妇女削发出家，成为西藏历史上的第一批尼姑。
返回 【门票和开放时间】 门票： 40 元。开放时间： 9：00－18：00
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桑耶寺在建筑上可谓内涵丰厚，据说整体结构是仿照古印度婆罗王朝位于摩羯陀的欧丹达菩黎寺建造，依照佛经中的大千世界布局。居中的乌策大殿代表须弥山，环绕的圆形围墙象征大千世界最外围的铁围山，平面近似坛城（曼陀罗）。其间，有象征日月的太阳、月亮殿，代表四大天王的四座佛塔，表示四方咸海中的四大洲和八小洲的各殿堂。
桑耶寺壁画内容丰富，最著名的当属长达92米的“史记”，内容讲述了宗教对藏地历史的描述和久远的传说。另外还有“莲花生传记”（位于二层明廊南侧）、“桑耶寺全景图”，以及描述藏族先民风土人情的各类壁画。
桑耶寺圆形“铁围山”围墙以内是芸芸众生所在的尘俗世界，众多塔殿可以随意参观，唯一卖票的地方是“世界中心”一乌策大殿。
从桑耶寺东南地海布日神山俯瞰桑耶，完整的曼佗罗式的“坛城”将展现在你的面前，此地是拍摄桑耶独特造型的最佳地点。体力不好的话就不用爬上山顶，在山腰一座佛塔处就可以了，当然由于树木葱笼，你看到的寺庙圆形造型不如在山顶上的那么清晰。
寺内光线昏暗，差不多是伸手不见五指，一定要带手电。
乌策大殿晚上六点关门,寺庙的东门也同时关闭。由东门出去到海布日神山和桑耶镇上闲逛的人，晚了须绕道北门回寺。
在招待所门外一左一右有两家商店，如果遇到停电，可以在店铺里买一支手电筒，在店里还可以买到一些矿泉水、可乐等饮料和方便面、饼干和电池一类东西。
寺内与寺外均有野狗。无事不要招惹，更不能抚摸，以免跳蚤缠身。
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交通
桑耶寺居于雅鲁藏布江北岸海布日神山脚下，前往颇要费些周折。首先要从拉萨或者泽当乘车在桑耶渡口下车（拉萨至桑耶渡口的班车车费：24元/人 车程为二～三个小时；泽当至桑耶渡口的班车车费：7元/人 车程为一小时），然后下车从一个写着“桑耶风景区”的门下进入雅江渡口登舟，有时会有人在门下卖“桑耶风景区门票”，10元／人。不过一般只要是乘坐大客车或中巴抵达，穿着上也随意—点儿，再和那些去桑耶朝佛的老乡一起进去，卖票的也多半不会找上你。
过去需在桑耶渡口乘平底渡船过江，大概要花一个小时，票价根据船上乘客的多少来收取，3～10元／人，试着私下和船工商量一下或许可以少收点。外宾收费一般更高些。如果急着赶过江去的话，包船的价格仍是几年一贯的价：单程380元／船。所谓渡船，其实只是机动木壳无蓬船，每船可乘60人左右，船只破陋但仍结实。
近来去桑耶寺可走近旁的过江大桥，取其安全快捷，但似乎远离了那种坐船过江的感觉，而更加接近现代城市。如何选择，视自身情况而定吧。坐船过江的，弃舟登岸，有桑耶寺的车在岸边接人到寺里，票价5元/人。早几年的东风大卡车现在已换成了中巴车，虽然路仍很烂，风沙仍极大，但比起以前在东风车厢满嘴沙子要好了许多，据说人来得多的时候，还是要用东风车开出来接人的。
餐饮
桑耶寺餐厅和桑耶寺招待所在一起，饭菜味道一般。炒面6 元，炒饭6 元，咖哩饭8 元，炒菜一般 10-15元/份。量很实在。啤酒6 元，酥油茶1元/杯(啤酒杯)，三磅水瓶装 4元/瓶，五磅水瓶装 6元/瓶。
出桑耶寺东门外有几间藏味餐厅和四川饭馆，其中一家用英文书写的“友谊雪域餐厅”还算不错。藏面4元/碗，甜茶2 元/杯，酥油茶5 元/壶，咖啡5 元/杯。
桑耶寺餐厅一般人不多，原本独自一人或两三人在此看书、写旅行日记倒是蛮惬意。只是雨季时这里的苍蝇同样著名。高原的苍蝇个头奇大，桑耶寺的苍蝇奇多，不过作为背包客的你完全可以把这次用餐当作一种原始的体验。
住宿
桑耶寺招待所就在“铁围山”里，一个较为简陋的三层楼招待所，却是众多朝圣老乡和四方游客的汇聚处。
进门左手第一间房是住宿登记处，住宿的价格随意性较大，三人间25-30元／床，四人间20-25元／床，五人间15元／床。寺院内住宿一层最便宜，但卫生很差，若能准备睡袋那要好许多，也有些图省劲又希望干净的背包族则是随身准备一个睡袋内胆或床单之类，也是一种解决方法。
每层有一公共厕所，三楼的厕所没有屋顶，具有西藏“观天如厕”的特色。没有洗漱间，所有洗漱工作，都要到楼下院子里一口压水井旁完成，有时人多还得排位，可以相互帮忙。
除了桑耶招待所可以住宿，从寺庙东门出去的桑耶乡里也有乡招待所，桑耶乡派出所里也有一个招待所。不过最好还是住在寺招待所里，晚上游客散尽的时候，月色下你尽可以漫步在佛经中的“大千世界”里，感觉可以完全融入整个寺庙之中，这可是在别处寺庙无法享有的感觉。
素有“西藏第一座寺庙”美称的桑耶寺，位于山南扎囊县雅鲁藏布江北岸的扎玛山麓,距离泽当镇38公里，是藏传佛教史上第一座佛、法、僧三宝俱全的寺庙。
桑耶寺于公元762年开始兴建。寺院选址于藏王赤松德赞的出生地，藏王赤德祖赞的冬宫附近。由莲花生大师主持桑耶的建设，建筑仍保持寂护大师的原设计，赤松德赞亲自主持了奠基。
寺院于公元779年建成后，赤松德赞邀请印度、汉地、于阗等地僧人住寺讲经弘法，为寺庙做了许多工作。剃度七名贵族子弟出家为僧为其中之一，这七人因而成为西藏第一批真正的住寺僧人。剃度为僧的数年后，这七人都被委任为讲经的规范师，被后人奉为西藏藏传佛教的先驱者，声名显赫于佛教界和西藏的历史，史称“桑耶七觉士”。赤松德赞弘佛抑苯，并宣布吐蕃全民信仰佛教。
桑耶寺以其殿塔林立，楼阁高阔，规模宏大，融合了藏、汉、印三种风格而造型完美的建筑和题材广博，技艺高超，绘塑精湛的壁画造像，以及众多木雕石刻、唐嘎等文物瑰宝而驰名于世。桑耶寺周围绿树成荫，河渠萦绕，是国家级雅砻风景名胜区的主要景区之一。
< 参观要点
桑耶寺在建筑上可谓内涵丰厚，据说整体结构是仿照古印度婆罗王朝位于摩羯陀的欧丹达菩黎寺建造，依照佛经中的大千世界布局。居中的乌策大殿代表须弥山，环绕的圆形围墙象征大千世界最外围的铁围山，平面近似坛城（曼陀罗）。其间，有象征日月的太阳、月亮殿，代表四大天王的四座佛塔，表示四方咸海中的四大洲和八小洲的各殿堂。
桑耶寺壁画内容丰富，最著名的当属长达92米的“史记”，内容讲述了宗教对藏地历史的描述和久远的传说。另外还有“莲花生传记”（位于二层明廊南侧）、“桑耶寺全景图”，以及描述藏族先民风土人情的各类壁画。
桑耶寺圆形“铁围山”围墙以内是芸芸众生所在的尘俗世界，众多塔殿可以随意参观，唯一卖票的地方是“世界中心”一乌策大殿。>【传说】
第五代赞普赤松德赞为唐朝金城公主之子，据说其出生后还曾围绕着他上演了一出藏族版本的《狸猫换太子》的故事，可正所谓少时蹉跎日后却必成大器--赤松德赞后来在藏族历史上被称为“师君三尊”之一。
公元754年赤松德赞执政以后为巩固政权的需要，设计除掉了崇苯的大臣，大力在雪域高原弘扬佛法抑制苯教。为此，他曾经先后两次延请“外国专家”一从印度迎请了高僧寂护，从乌杖那国请来了密宗大师莲花生入藏传经，使佛教由此开始在雪域高原扎下了根来。
赤松德赞后又授命寂护建造西藏历史上第一座寺庙桑耶寺，但建寺过程中却屡建屡垮，原因据说是此地妖气很盛，鬼魔横行。想来寂护大师大概属于书卷气较重空有满腹经纶那类“文化人”，对于这些邪魔外道就好像是“秀才遇上了兵”，一点儿招也没有。看着寺庙老是建不起来，英明的赤松德赞国王那个急的，慌忙就把精通密宗咒术擅长降魔伏妖的莲花生请来帮忙，估计是病急乱投医，国王就当大师是一柔道黑带高手使了。不过大师也拽的厉害，和邪魔外道们飞沙走石一顿开打，其间自然免不了在四处空中来水里去的(要不然现在桑耶和山南一带怎么会留下那么多“战斗遗址”)，街边混混们玩真的哪儿玩得过武林正派，何况还是一“外援”，最后终于邪不压正，妖魔们被一顿暴扁打的是鼻青睑肿落花流水，最后有的是流落异乡，逃到了偏僻的藏东崇山峻岭中；有的是“阵前起义”，被大师招安改编成“政府军”--成了佛教的护法神。桑耶寺的由来还有一段故事。桑耶寺，藏文意为“吉祥永固天成桑耶大伽蓝”，又或者“无边寺”、“超出意想寺”、“三样寺”等名称，但一般总称为“桑耶寺”。相传，赤松德赞请来莲花生大师为其建寺传法后，为了满足一下国王急于见到寺庙建好后景象的迫切之心，莲花生施展法术，在自己的手心变幻出了寺院的幻影，赤松德赞见此景大惊，惊呼：“桑耶！”(“出乎意料”的意思)于是该寺得名“桑耶寺”。
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桑耶寺的建筑规模宏大，布局奇特，初入寺中，也许会被鳞次栉比殿塔林立的奇怪布局所迷惑，但你如果了解了这些单独建筑所蕴涵的意义和在整个寺庙布局中所起的作用以后，你一定会为这座在建筑史上无与伦比的辉煌建筑群所倾倒、所折服。
桑耶寺的建筑，据说是仿照古印度婆罗王朝在摩揭陀所建的欧丹达菩黎寺为蓝本而建的，全寺的建筑完全按照佛经中的大干世界布局：中央为世界中心须弥山，由一座藏、汉、天竺三种风格的三层“邬孜大殿”代表，大殿南北又建太阳、月亮两殿，象征宇宙中的日、月双轮，邬孜大殿四个角上分别建有红、白、绿、黑四座佛塔，代表四大天王，大殿四周还均匀分布着4大殿和8小殿，表示四方咸海中的四大部洲和八小洲：寺庙建筑群的外围是一道圆形的围墙所环绕，象征着世界外围的铁圉山。整个寺庙的建筑布局又和密宗的曼荼罗(坛城)有几分相似。
如果你还为纷繁复杂的建筑所困的话，那么欣赏整个寺庙精妙布局的最好的地方就在邬孜大殿的顶层。在顶层居高四望，东南西北四个方向的分别是江白林、阿雅巴律林、强巴林、桑结林四大部洲，周围可见八小洲、日月殿和白黑绿红四塔星罗拱卫，精湛的构思巧妙的布局，将会让你叹为观止。唯一美中不足的是，在大殿正门右前方，寺院自己新修了一座旅馆，大小与四大部洲殿相仿，在整个建筑布局中和整体风格不太协调，显得很突兀。不过这倒是方便了你我这样的旅行者。另外，在这个代表大干世界的小宇宙般的建筑群中，能有一座“属于”旅行者的建筑在我看来倒颇有点象征意义，它大概象征着旅行者和修行者最终的殊途同归吧。
乌策大殿是桑耶寺的主殿，位于全寺的中心地带。大殿坐西向东，高为三层，底为藏式风格，中层为汉式，顶层为印度样式，因此“三样寺”的名称就是由此而来的。大殿和甬道回廊里均绘满了各种题材的壁画。除了一些你在其他寺庙里也能看到的传统的宗教绘画外，在桑耶寺邬孜大殿内围墙中层廊道上有著名的“西藏史”壁画，画中记载了从远古传说的罗刹女与神猴结合繁衍藏族开始，一直到宗喀巴创立格鲁派，止于九世达赖业绩。壁画长92米，洋洋洒洒，恢弘壮丽，被誉为西藏的“绘画史记”。此外在邬孜大殿一层和二层有“桑耶寺史记”，二层的南侧有“莲花生传记”等精美的壁画。在大殿门口左侧，有一块古老的石碑，上面记录了赤松德赞于公元779年发布的正式以佛教为吐蕃国教的敕令。大门正廊上还挂着一口历经千年的唐式古钟，这是西藏历史上铸造的第一口铜钟。据说是为纪念赤松德赞第三妃没卢氏(又有一说叫“菩提氏”)，她带领三十名贵族妇女削发出家，成为西藏历史上的第一批尼姑。
返回 【门票和开放时间】 门票： 40 元。开放时间： 9：00－18：00
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桑耶寺在建筑上可谓内涵丰厚，据说整体结构是仿照古印度婆罗王朝位于摩羯陀的欧丹达菩黎寺建造，依照佛经中的大千世界布局。居中的乌策大殿代表须弥山，环绕的圆形围墙象征大千世界最外围的铁围山，平面近似坛城（曼陀罗）。其间，有象征日月的太阳、月亮殿，代表四大天王的四座佛塔，表示四方咸海中的四大洲和八小洲的各殿堂。
桑耶寺壁画内容丰富，最著名的当属长达92米的“史记”，内容讲述了宗教对藏地历史的描述和久远的传说。另外还有“莲花生传记”（位于二层明廊南侧）、“桑耶寺全景图”，以及描述藏族先民风土人情的各类壁画。
桑耶寺圆形“铁围山”围墙以内是芸芸众生所在的尘俗世界，众多塔殿可以随意参观，唯一卖票的地方是“世界中心”一乌策大殿。
从桑耶寺东南地海布日神山俯瞰桑耶，完整的曼佗罗式的“坛城”将展现在你的面前，此地是拍摄桑耶独特造型的最佳地点。体力不好的话就不用爬上山顶，在山腰一座佛塔处就可以了，当然由于树木葱笼，你看到的寺庙圆形造型不如在山顶上的那么清晰。
寺内光线昏暗，差不多是伸手不见五指，一定要带手电。
乌策大殿晚上六点关门,寺庙的东门也同时关闭。由东门出去到海布日神山和桑耶镇上闲逛的人，晚了须绕道北门回寺。
在招待所门外一左一右有两家商店，如果遇到停电，可以在店铺里买一支手电筒，在店里还可以买到一些矿泉水、可乐等饮料和方便面、饼干和电池一类东西。
寺内与寺外均有野狗。无事不要招惹，更不能抚摸，以免跳蚤缠身。
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交通
桑耶寺居于雅鲁藏布江北岸海布日神山脚下，前往颇要费些周折。首先要从拉萨或者泽当乘车在桑耶渡口下车（拉萨至桑耶渡口的班车车费：24元/人 车程为二～三个小时；泽当至桑耶渡口的班车车费：7元/人 车程为一小时），然后下车从一个写着“桑耶风景区”的门下进入雅江渡口登舟，有时会有人在门下卖“桑耶风景区门票”，10元／人。不过一般只要是乘坐大客车或中巴抵达，穿着上也随意—点儿，再和那些去桑耶朝佛的老乡一起进去，卖票的也多半不会找上你。
过去需在桑耶渡口乘平底渡船过江，大概要花一个小时，票价根据船上乘客的多少来收取，3～10元／人，试着私下和船工商量一下或许可以少收点。外宾收费一般更高些。如果急着赶过江去的话，包船的价格仍是几年一贯的价：单程380元／船。所谓渡船，其实只是机动木壳无蓬船，每船可乘60人左右，船只破陋但仍结实。
近来去桑耶寺可走近旁的过江大桥，取其安全快捷，但似乎远离了那种坐船过江的感觉，而更加接近现代城市。如何选择，视自身情况而定吧。坐船过江的，弃舟登岸，有桑耶寺的车在岸边接人到寺里，票价5元/人。早几年的东风大卡车现在已换成了中巴车，虽然路仍很烂，风沙仍极大，但比起以前在东风车厢满嘴沙子要好了许多，据说人来得多的时候，还是要用东风车开出来接人的。
餐饮
桑耶寺餐厅和桑耶寺招待所在一起，饭菜味道一般。炒面6 元，炒饭6 元，咖哩饭8 元，炒菜一般 10-15元/份。量很实在。啤酒6 元，酥油茶1元/杯(啤酒杯)，三磅水瓶装 4元/瓶，五磅水瓶装 6元/瓶。
出桑耶寺东门外有几间藏味餐厅和四川饭馆，其中一家用英文书写的“友谊雪域餐厅”还算不错。藏面4元/碗，甜茶2 元/杯，酥油茶5 元/壶，咖啡5 元/杯。
桑耶寺餐厅一般人不多，原本独自一人或两三人在此看书、写旅行日记倒是蛮惬意。只是雨季时这里的苍蝇同样著名。高原的苍蝇个头奇大，桑耶寺的苍蝇奇多，不过作为背包客的你完全可以把这次用餐当作一种原始的体验。
住宿
桑耶寺招待所就在“铁围山”里，一个较为简陋的三层楼招待所，却是众多朝圣老乡和四方游客的汇聚处。
进门左手第一间房是住宿登记处，住宿的价格随意性较大，三人间25-30元／床，四人间20-25元／床，五人间15元／床。寺院内住宿一层最便宜，但卫生很差，若能准备睡袋那要好许多，也有些图省劲又希望干净的背包族则是随身准备一个睡袋内胆或床单之类，也是一种解决方法。
每层有一公共厕所，三楼的厕所没有屋顶，具有西藏“观天如厕”的特色。没有洗漱间，所有洗漱工作，都要到楼下院子里一口压水井旁完成，有时人多还得排位，可以相互帮忙。
除了桑耶招待所可以住宿，从寺庙东门出去的桑耶乡里也有乡招待所，桑耶乡派出所里也有一个招待所。不过最好还是住在寺招待所里，晚上游客散尽的时候，月色下你尽可以漫步在佛经中的“大千世界”里，感觉可以完全融入整个寺庙之中，这可是在别处寺庙无法享有的感觉。
藏传佛教
提要
“空行母”（?ākinī）一词在藏传佛教中，具有多元且甚深的象征意涵。就修行层面而言，空行母是佛、法、僧三宝的内相“三根本”（three roots，指上师、本尊、空行）中，负责护持佛行“事业”的根本，是女性的佛母、成就者与大护法等的集合名词。
本文即试从藏传佛教“空行母”（?ākinī）的议题入手，藉由其根源与定义的探讨，从字源学的历史演变切入，到扣合佛教由印度传入西藏前、后空行母字义的衍异，论及空行母在藏传佛教史上的地位与相关法教。此外，在本文中也将以噶举派“金鬘”上师传承传记为例，探讨其间空行母所具有的丰富、多元的象征和作用，以做为实例的参照。
关键词：空行母（?ākinī）、藏传佛教（Tibetan Buddhism）、藏传佛教传记（rNam-thar）、密乘
（Tantra）、三根本（Three Roots）、护法（Dharma Protectors）
一、前言
“空行母”一词在藏传佛教中，具有多元且甚深的象征意涵。就修行层面而言，空行母是佛、法、僧三宝的内相[1]“三根本”（上师、本尊、空行）中，负责护持佛行“事业”的根本（root），是女性的佛母、成就者与大护法等的集合名词。但这仅是分类上的方便归属，空行母也可以是上师：如益喜措嘉、玛吉拉准……等女性的传承祖师；也有属于本尊类别的绿度母、金刚亥母、妙音佛母[2]……等。这些互涉、错综的关系，除了使其在名相或专有名词上的定义不易外，也增添了不少相关研究上的难度。
本文即试从藏传佛教“空行母”（?ākinī）的议题入手，藉由其根源与定义的探讨，从字源学的历史演变切入，到扣合佛教由印度传入西藏前、后空行母字义的衍异，论及空行母在藏传佛教史上的地位与相关法教。透过空行母在藏传佛教上师传记所扮演的角色分析，可深入了解女性本质（female principle）的“开悟”与“清净”特性。此外，从上师传记中有关空行母的关键叙述，以及其所发挥的“启发、引导、破除执着妄念”等作用，更可彰显佛教“男女平等”的观点论述，也间接驳斥了小乘佛教执持女身不净说，或主张男女证悟能力有别的偏颇看法。因此在本文中也将以噶举派“金鬘”上师传承传记为例，探讨其间空行母所具有的丰富、多元的象征和作用，以做为实例的左证和参考。
二、空行母的定义与类别
美国卫思礼大学（Wesleyan University）宗教系主任 Janice D. Willis 在其撰写的《空行母：其本质与意义的相关评述》（“?ākinī : Some Comments on Its Nature and Meaning”）一文中，曾概述了历来西方学界对“空行母”一词的定义与演绎。从早先将空行母附比为西方神话中的“精灵”（fairies）[3]、“复仇女神”(Furies)[4]，到近年来较为贴近藏传佛教意旨的“空中舞者”（Sky Dancer）[5]诠释，我们可以发现，西方学界对空行母一词的语意与辞源研究，大致扣合了佛教史的发展脉络，即是以印度晚期佛教密乘（Tantra）中的空行母辞源探究，与密乘传入西藏后有关空行母定义的扩延，初步可概分为两大类型：一是印度佛教密乘时期的空行母初义，二为藏传佛教中的空行母释义。其中，前者涉及了将印度教神祇转化为佛教密续本尊（Deity）和护法（Dharmapāla）的过程，而后者则涵盖莲师（Guru Rinpoche, Padmasambhava）入藏后降服当地女性神灵与邪魔，将其纳入空行、护法之列的蜕变。换言之，在这两个过程中，都出现了将外道神灵或图腾转换为佛教信仰的吸纳与驯化作用，并由此扩展了空行母的繁复意象与定义，也区隔出空行母的两大类阶：即高阶[6]的、已然证悟成佛的智慧空行母，以及低阶的护法神祇（世间神祇）。
（一）、印度大乘佛教晚期的空行母语源及定义
据佛教学者吕澄在《印度佛学思想概论》书中的界分，晚期印度大乘佛学传扬的时期，大约从第七世纪到十二世纪之间，而自十世纪起，密教成为晚期大乘佛学的主流，直到十三世纪初回教徒入侵印度、大举灭佛为止。关于密乘在晚期印度佛教史上的兴盛，除了当时的大型寺院，如超戒寺、那澜陀寺等对密教的重视与倡导之外，也因为大乘佛学发展到晚期，有渐趋于繁琐哲学的倾向，其深奥的理论与教义辩争，不易为一般信徒所亲近与了解，“为了争取群众，便采取了印度教的方法，这就是密教发生的主要原因。”（吕澄，256）吕澄认为晚期印度佛教密乘思想的崛起，乃是为了世俗宏化与大众信仰所生的权变，但若从大乘佛教思想核心“缘起”与“空性”的观点着眼，则密乘对印度教教义、仪式的吸纳与移转，也可谓是当时社会、政治、宗教各方面因缘和合的结果，同时也指出了佛教思想的适时性与包容性。
至于密乘吸纳了印度教信仰的背景，在当时印度各宗教思想勃发，重整、互融与论辩情形显见的情况下，也可以找到教义上的左证。有一个著名的例子，是八世纪阐扬婆罗门教“吠檀多”派思想的商羯罗[7]，他所主张的“梵我不二”思想，与二、三世纪龙树菩萨的中观思想──“空性”与“二谛”说，颇为近似。
因此当代西方的中观研究学者[8]，不乏将密乘中心思想的中观学（Madhyamika），诠解、附会为受到了印度教吠檀多哲学的影响，例如俄国学者舍尔巴茨基（Stcherbastky）在1927年出版的《佛教的涅盘概念》一书中，便“力主中观哲学为一元论（monism），犹如商羯罗的吠檀多哲学一样，主张唯一无二的实在，而以杂多现象为虚妄。”（林镇国，4）。同样地，吕澄也采取了类似的看法，他认为吸取了佛教思想、足迹遍及印度，学说风行一时的商羯罗，“对佛教确实产生了影响，由此开了中观与密教相结合的途径，密教即以中观思想为中心，而使中观势力大为抬头。”（吕澄，256-7）
仔细思考商羯罗与中观思想的主、从影响问题，前述学者的观点不免令人质疑：从六、七世纪佛教各学派的系列论争[9]，不难发现佛教各学派的论师，皆娴知当时婆罗门教、印度教、耆那教等外道论述，其目的是为了“以子之茅，攻子之盾”地辩破其论点，而非肯定、支持外道学说，遑论是受其影响了。如此便陈言中观学派乃吠檀多思想的演绎，恐有失诸草率与误读之虞，另外在年代的推演上，也不符合其历史脉络的前后顺序，足见西方中观学者的诠解尚待商榷。
尽管商羯罗的“吠檀多”教义与佛教中观思想之间的影响问题，有待进一步厘清与考证，但从商羯罗的例子，可推知当时印度各教派思想间的互融与改写，应是甚为活络，因此佛教密乘中出现对印度教神祇、图征、崇拜仪式的转换情形，自是不难想见。有关空行母一词的辞源，便有指称是出自印度教女性神祇的说法。
在 Sir Monier-Williams 编纂的《梵英字典》（A Sanskrit-English Dictionary，1899；rpt. 1964）中，即认为空行母的梵文字义 ākinī，是指“啖人肉”之“伽梨女神（Kālī）的女性侍从”（Willis，61、150）。此处的伽梨女神，乃印度教三大主神之一、主司破坏的天神湿婆[10]（iva）之妻，是印度教性力派崇奉的主神之一，“其形貌凶恶，遍体黑色，具四头四手（一说十头十手），额上有第三只眼，手执各类兵器，胸前悬挂髑髅，腰挂人手。此神专喝恶魔之鲜血，象征强大与新生。”（《佛光大辞典》，p.2768）而做为伽梨女神扈从的金刚瑜伽母（Vajrayoginī），其形貌则为右手执持钺刀，右手持握天灵盖做成的颅器，内呈满鲜血。
另外，Keith Dowman 在《空中舞者：益喜措嘉佛母的秘密生平与道歌》（Sky Dancer: The Secret Life and Songs of the Lady Yeshe Tsogyel）书末的附文《女性与空行母》(“Woman and the ākinī”）中，也表明了空行母一词，是“佛教引自性力派的词汇，在性力派的祭仪当中，荼吉尼是啖人血肉之伽梨女神的侍从」[11]（Dowman，258）。伽梨女神嗜血啖肉的形象，从其崇拜仪式必须以鲜血牲祭，方能得到恩赐与满愿的说法，可以得到强化，因此其侍从荼吉尼同为饮血女神的怖畏意象，也随之承袭了下来，并过渡到佛教的信仰体系之中。据《大日经疏》第十卷记载，”荼吉尼系大黑神之眷属、夜叉鬼之一；有自在之神通力，能于六个月前得知人之死期，遂预先取食其心，而代之以他物，直至此人合当命终时，始告败坏；盖修此法者可得神通、大成就。毘卢遮那佛为除此众，故以降伏三世之法门，化作大黑神而收摄之，令彼皆归命于佛。”（《佛光大辞典》，p.4781）这是荼吉尼由外道被摄受、转化为密乘护法神的可考文献之一，“佛教化”后的空行母，在内涵与象征上皆有了大幅的转变，不若先前般邪恶与阴森了。
为了进一步分析从印度教荼吉尼到密乘空行母之间的变化，亦可参考 Willis 前文中的相关阐述，她用“前佛教时期”（pre-Buddhist）来标明未入佛教之前的荼吉尼语义，并列举出西方学界对荼吉尼的诠释，约略如下：一是 David Snellgrove 在1957年出版的《喜马拉雅的佛教徒》（Buddhist Himalaya）一书中，指称“和乌仗那（Uddiyana）有特殊关连的女性神祇，名为空行母。她们常出现在密续典籍之中，显现为瑜伽士（yogin）的道伴，在瑜伽士朝访圣地群集其身旁”，且“因为阴森、鄙琐的行事风格，使其名符其实地配得了‘女巫’（witch）之名。到西藏神话之中的空行母，则有了更为温和的面向……”（Willis，59）Snellgrove 对空行母的描述，暗示了印度教伽梨女神扈从荼吉尼的残留形象，且对于成就者、上师传记中空行母所扮演的关键性指引角色，也有了初步的着墨，在下文有关传记中空行母角色的部份，会有更详尽的举证。
其二，是1978年 Martin Kalff 在《上乐金刚传承中的空行母》（”?ākinīs in the Cakrasa?vara Tradition”）一文中，对“前佛教时期”与密乘两大类别之空行母的阐释，Kalff 指出前佛教时期有如邪魔般（demonic）的荼吉尼，在《入楞伽经》（Lankāvatāra Suutra）中曾有记载，经文中描述某个食肉者“会从荼吉尼的腹中，降生为啖肉生灵，其后投胎为夜叉（Rāk?asi）和猫；隶属于人类最低的种性阶级。”（Willis，60）这段引文将荼吉尼与另一类啖肉生灵──夜叉相提并论，概因两者皆是在尸林、坟场活动的女性神魔，也都以食人肉的怖畏形象著称。Kalff认为这类位阶较低等的女性邪灵，与上乐金刚（Cakrasa?vara）密续中已经证悟成佛的空行母大异其趣，“意味着前佛教时期低阶荼吉尼的形式，随着密乘的盛行，被整合纳入佛教体系之中。”（60）
另外，James Robinson 在其英译的《佛陀之狮：八十四大成就者传记》（Buddha’s Lion: The Lives of the Eighty- Four Siddhas，1979）中，则推测“空行母”一词的梵文辞源，可能来自于和“飞行”有关的字义，这种根据字面意义诠释的方式，从空行母的藏文中，可以更明显地察见。
（二）、藏传佛教中的“空行母”定义与类别
空行母的藏文为mkha’ gro ma音译为Khandroma，mkha 意指“虚空”，gro 则表示“行走、步入”之意，ma 是一般泛称女性的字尾，整个字词合起来的意思，是指“空中的女性行者”。但 Willis 认为单是如此，仍不足以表达空行母的丰富意涵，于是举出三位西方学者的诠释，来补充说明“空行母”一词的象征含义。其中，Herbert Guenther 主张藏文空行母字词中的“虚空”、“天界”（celestial space）字根，具有与“空性”（emptiness）相等的指涉，而“行”字则意谓“证入”（to understand），因此空行母是指“了悟空性的女性成就者”；而 Anagarika Govinda 则表示 mkha 代表“虚空、第五元素的以太（ether）、无法得见形体的活动”，’gro 为“行走、移动”，所以空行母概指“以女性形象示现的天人，她们具有明净的虚空本性，在天空中悠走自如。”；至于 James Robinson 则认为空行母的定义是“证悟空性的女性”，也就是“智慧的女性化身”。
从 Willis 引述三位学者对空行母藏文字义的诠释，对照前述印度密乘对印度教女神的转化，可发现空行母的两大类别──高阶／低阶、证悟／世间、智慧天女／嗜血地祇──呼之欲出，而佛教密乘的印度、西藏分期，也呈现了对空行母定义的衍伸与扩充，从语源学（etymology）上的分析可以找到充分的例证。
至于密乘传入西藏后对空行母定义的扩延，除了强化其证悟、智能的阴性本质（feminine principle）之外，早先印度教嗜血女神的残余意象，也被带入了具神话传奇、泛灵信仰的原始神祇之列，尤其是这些女性地祇，受莲师调伏而转为藏密的护法之后，其原先的苯教、邪灵色彩，也渐趋淡化与稀释，另附上了“面恶心善”的正面新形象。从 Janet Gyatso 研究西藏原始女魔的文章《邪灵底蕴：反思西藏的女性根源》（”Down With the Demonesss: Reflections on a Feminine Ground in Tibet”）中，可以看出这种将外道、泛灵信仰转纳入佛教体系的变异。
Gyatso 表示在公元八、九世纪左右，西藏军事力量甚为强大的时期（也就是唐史上的“吐蕃”时期），其女性的地位与重要性不容轻忽，除了在政治上后妃拥有对吐蕃王的决策影响力之外，母系社会的遗迹在“子从母姓”的风俗上也依稀可辨，而在原始的泛灵信仰、鬼神系谱上，女性神祇也占有举足轻重的份量。她引述 Erik Haarh 在《雅隆王朝》[12]（The Yar-lun Dynasty，1969）一书中的研究资料，显见当时的西藏有不少前佛教的女神传说，例如九个原初蛋（primordial eggs）之母的“贪爱王母”（Srid pa’i rgyal mo）、西藏国王始祖演绎而来的“毛妖女王”（sPu yul mo btsun gung rgyal）、“祖王母”（A phyi gnam gyi gung rgyal）等，加上敦煌出土的西藏格言史料中，亦暗示了五世纪左右青海松巴（Sum-pa）群落中女性的强大势力，这些例子足以证明女性在西藏部落社会所具有的重要性。接着，Gyatso 指出藏地女性神祇特有的一支，名为“辛”（Srin）的女魔，最能代表古老西藏神灵纵横的现象，且符合史料对原始西藏“蛮荒野地”、“红发食肉恶魔”、“恶鬼肆虐”等的描述。从“辛”的演变与探讨中，Gyasto 也发现了这些神话或传说的建立，与佛教传入、驯化“野蛮、贫乏”藏民信仰的过程有关（Gyatso，33-35）。
Gyatso 陈言“辛是一种特别凶暴的邪灵，后来在迻译上被等同于印度的夜叉”，其出现在许多古老的西藏神话之中，或与藏人始祖伏魔的传说产生联系。这种外显女形的“辛魔”（Srin-mo），为数众多且形貌奇诡，在噶举派的典籍中曾描绘其首领之一是“蛙头血眼”，而 F.W. Thomas 在《古代俗文学》（Ancient Folk Literature）中则以敦煌古卷为例，提及的 Srin-mo 计有“神手母”（Phyag na yed mo）、“杂藏鸟母”（Pod ldungs sdu khlad kyi pya khyi ma）、“黑苯母”(gNag brang ma)[13]等；从其名称上不难想见这些辛魔的怪异形貌，与其混杂的古老神话、苯教与泛灵信仰元素。自八世纪密乘传入西藏后，史载莲师曾在 Rong rong lung panag po 一地，降服了众多的辛魔，使其归顺、发誓成为佛教的忿怒尊（wrathful deities）与护法。由此，可大略看出辛魔在归化佛教前后的差异性──主要是在内涵与象征上的逆转，以及此过程与印度密乘“度化”外道女神的模拟性：在前佛教时期的辛魔，相当于印度的夜叉或啖人嗜血的印度教女神，相反地，被佛教摄受、驯服后的辛魔，则有了新的属性与象征意义，且被赋予了保护教法、利益行者、守护誓言等的多重使命。
除了探讨辛魔在佛教传入前的原始样貌外，Janet Gyatso 也试图分析辛魔的女性特质，凸显其在苯教或泛灵信仰中的“地”祇特性，并将之与古希腊女神信仰的“大地之母”形象相互比对。
此外，Gyatso 也质疑为何佛教传入西藏后，便视藏地的女性根源（the feminine ground）为鬼怪、蛮荒与邪恶的代表？她认为在藏族的始祖传说[14]中，便隐含了这种“嗜杀、身强体健、勇敢”的魔女成份，相异于突显“慈悲、精神性”的男性始祖（观音菩萨）[15]特质。Gyatso 将这种性别象征上的差异，置入当代西方女性主义佛学的批判架构之中，与 Diana Paul 研究佛教女性身分的变革脉络[16]产生勾连，认为视女性为邪恶根源的说法，基本上是小乘部派佛教观点的残留。
有趣的是，在苯教典籍中，也将女性视为魔鬼、贪执的化身，同样是充满了负面的评价；而在佛教成为藏民的主要信仰之后，苯教仪式与原始女神、辛魔等外道，除了披覆上某种古老、野蛮、邪恶的映象外，其本身也开始产生了质变，像是苯教经典便吸取佛教教义，改头换面以谋求教脉的延续。因此，对外道女神形象的改写，可能不单是佛教对外来事物转化、调和的关系，也有可能是外道为了求生存而自动嫁接的结果。
归言之，如果说西藏前佛教时期的女性始祖与女神形象，存有和小乘“不净”女性观的近似性；那么藏密对女性的尊崇（瑜伽行者视女性为空行母化身、智慧的代表），则可谓等同于大乘主张的性别平等论了。另一方面，辛魔一系的女性神祇由早期的“地母”形象，转变为后来的“空行”护法身分，这由地至天的演化过程，也许隐含了其它象征与诠释的可能，对照于基督教女性神学对“天父／地母”的性别论述，或可延伸出另一个比较研究的议题。
除此，Janet Gyasto 也强调与其认为辛魔是某种女性或神祇，不如说她是一种信仰，是一种强势的文化信仰与世界观，在上述简化、鄙夷女性的说法之外，其实具有更为深沉的意义与象征。同样地，有关空行母的定义与角色诠释，也不仅限于入佛前后的差异或天／地位阶的差别而已，她也拥有更为细密、广泛的指涉，更趋近于抽象、内在的象征层次。
（三）、其它有关空行母的定义
在探讨空行母文章的末尾，Willis 提出了几个有关空行母特性与定义的普遍性结论。首先，她认为“空行母指的是一种阴性本质”，而非具象的女性形体，虽然空行母常以女性的样貌示现[17]，因为“在密续的象征系统中，为了表示殊胜的开悟特质（Enlightenment），空行母大多显现女性形体”。
事实上密乘中的空行母，象征的是一个具足的整体（whole being），而不能以世俗化约的性别差异概念，来看待其所代表的阴性本质。同样地，Keith Dowman 也表示“‘上师’与‘空行母’是内在形上的实体，基本上每个人的精神层面都兼具了男性与女性本质，……即便空行母无远弗届的空性（Emptiness），也不能与隐现的方便（Skilful Means）分离开来。”[18]
智慧与方便的不二，就如同阴性与阳性本质的兼备，难以男女性别做为判准，男性行者的内在也具备了空行母的阴性特质──也就是智慧的本性。因此，瑜伽士在修行时，其女性特质便会以四种手印（mudrā）[19]的方式显现，“与其将空行母定义为人类（指女性），不如理解她是在完美内观（insight）与方便结合时，清净一切染污之空性本质的展现。”而到了密乘修持的最上层境界，也就是四印最高成就的大手印境界时，空行母已臻化境而不可思议，此时“她是空性神人同体（anthropomorphic）的示现，即是在转变中、如梦如幻、清净、涵摄一切的明觉（Awareness）。”在此的上师与空行母定义，已超乎平常、字典中所描述“精神导师”与“女神化身”之意了。
其次，从胜义谛[20]的观点看来，空行母所代表的是一种最高的证悟智慧，“她是对空性（Voidness）最直接、不假他物（unmediated）、非概念的了悟”[21]，此状态是无法落于言诠的。
此外，在密乘的修行中，上师、本尊、空行是缺一不可的三根本，也是最重要的教法之一，行者必须净观其上师等同于本尊与空行──即三根本总集的化现；而在更高阶的密续仪轨中，则有观想空行母为三根本总集的修持法，此时的空行母更兼具了法、报、化三身的证悟特质，“是无形色的‘真理之身’，亦即法身；就沟通与带来启发、证悟能力的层面而言，她是绝妙、庄严的“受用身”，也就是本尊和报身；而在无尽化现以破除我们执着的轮回习性上，她则展现了难以计数的“化身”成就。在空性的状态中，空行母是三身的俱现。”
对应于三根本、三身（three kāyas），在密乘有关空行母的修行上，更进一步地分为外、内、密三个阶段，“在外密的部份，是空行母显现的各种形貌：人或天神、寂静尊或忿怒尊、利益或危害人类；内密的空行母则在资深行者成功转化自身为伟大空行母（通常是金刚瑜伽母的本尊身）时，方才显现；而密密的空行母是无形的威力、能量与空性纯净的加持。”[22]
以上皆是对智慧空行母（wisdom ?ākinī）在密续上的相关要点阐释。 由此，可明显看出空行母在藏文中字义（如前述的语义分析）、教理和实修上的扩充，以及在修持上环环相扣的缜密架构。而常见对空行母的定义与诠释，则大致区分为胜义层次的智能空行母，以及世间供赞护法类的女性神祇两大类别，这种界分也合乎了空行母在入佛前后的定义演变。但必须注意的是，在此的智慧空行母并非一般所世俗认定的“女性”概念，“因为在密乘，尤其是无上瑜伽中，行者修习一个法门去开展其潜能，尤其是净光根本心，从每个人都拥有根本心的观点看，是没有男女之别的。”
此外，在噶举派堪布卡塔仁波切所著的《证悟的女性》一书中，也提及了空行母与五大（地、水、火、风、空）、五蕴（色、受、想、行、识）与五方佛父佛母[23]的相关教义[24]。
卡塔仁波切指出“男女两性都具有五蕴，也都有五大。地大指的是我们的色身肉体，水大是在我们体内流动的液体，我们体内产生的暖热即是火大，风大是我们呼吸时所需要的元素，而我们体内的空性即是空大。在我们尚未了悟五大的清净本质时，五大只是我们身体里面的五种元素；当了悟了五大的清净相时，我们就证悟到了五方佛的眷属──五方佛母的境地。”
当五蕴清净时，即证悟了五方佛的成就，而五大的本净状态展现时，也就到达了五方佛母（五大空行母）的成就境界；五方佛父、佛母的教授，“事实上就是代表圆满的证悟──我们身心染污的究竟清净，以及一切烦恼垢障的净除。”不管男、女，每个人皆兼具了五蕴与五大的元素，因此就密乘的观点而言，是没有男女性别的差异与歧视的，“不论男女，如果努力精进修持，都绝对能利用五蕴和五大来证悟成佛的。”[25]且如同五蕴与五大的密不可分，五方佛父、佛母的证悟成就，也是俱时展现的，因此在密续的唐卡上，“常以两性合一的象征方式来表达”[26]一如上师与空行母方便与智慧的象征，在密乘的修行上是内在、相辅相成的本质，绝非一般人对双运的误解与穿凿。
最后，套用 Keith Domman 在 《Sky Dancer 》书中的说法，他认为空行母对西方世界来说，是一个颇具价值的新概念，“其价值在于难以有确切的定义，她包含了一系列的意涵：阴性本质、精神融合的剎那、上师的法侣”等，而“‘空中舞者’的意象，则以在穹苍中舞动的空行女神（Goddess-?ākinī），召唤出非物质、翩飞（gossamer）、变形（shape-shifting）等不令人费解的指涉含义。”他进一步指出空行母具有“甚深的密续神秘性，而这个谜团唯有透过灌顶方能揭晓，即是瑜伽士以实证了悟空行真义的方式。”除此，“太过于概念化地理解，都难免有误，因为一旦以很好的说法来定义空行母时，她就会成为一个了无生趣的概念（dead concept）。”
而达赖喇嘛也在《藏传佛教世界》中强调，“当研读无上瑜伽密续时，即便是一个单字也会有好几种不同层次的解释。……在密续的一个单字或语词可以有四种不同的意义，这就是所谓的四知解义，”另外，“密乘也提到了另一个诠释学上的设计，可以帮助我们了解无上瑜伽的经典，也就是六参数，它们是三组对照的定义解释经文的意义”[27]（达赖喇嘛）。所以单一名词即具有许多不同的内涵，必须依其讨论的层次与领域而定，空行母的定义也不例外。
在探讨过空行母的历史演变与各层定义之后，本文将继续探讨在传承简传与上师传记中的空行母角色及其象征，以做为定义／实例的相互参照之用。
三、藏传佛教传记中的空行母
因为藏传佛教颇重视传记的书写与传承，在许多重要的祖师或大成就者传记中，皆隐含了甚深的密意与教法，从外、内、密三种传记的分类上[28]，可以清楚地看出其撰写主旨与象征层级的差异：“外传主要处理生平中‘外在’的重要事件，包括生、死等；内传则阐述主角的法教、灌顶与精神进展等；而密传旨在揭示禅定证悟的经验”，连带地对空行母身分与内容描述的比例、深浅也会随之异动。此外，在传记中谈及不同阶段[29]的密乘修持时，因“各种不同的密法中有其微细的差异性与复杂性，主要是反映行者的身心状况和性向的差异，”（达赖喇嘛，）所以空行母所显现的层级与状态（法、报、化三身或五大空行母），也会因应而有所不同。为了分析上的方便，仅选择较具代表性的上师传承传记与大成就者（Siddhas）传记中的空行母角色，进行相关的比对与讨论。
在现今流传的教派传承史中，噶举派的“金鬘”上师传承是最广为人知的一系；称其为金鬘（a golden rosary），乃是“因为其中每一位大师都如最上等的金子般珍贵完美，集胜悟、饱学和成就之大成于一身，也均能传予弟子湛深、直指人心的法教，使其顿悟大手印之心性。”（《金鬘》，序8）著名的密勒日巴尊者，便是金鬘传承的伟大上师之一，“如他自己所授记的，他的声名将为空行母所远播。在今日，他的生平故事已被写成多种不同的文字，对陷于轮回中的苦难众生产生很大的抚慰作用。他可能是继释迦牟尼佛之后最出名的佛教人物”。（《金鬘》，序13）因此，从“详述了建立噶举传承诸伟大上师的生平事迹”的《噶举金鬘上师传承》[30]一书中，我们可以清楚地看出空行母所扮演的关键性角色。
《噶举金鬘上师传承》的一开始，“描述了金刚总持（Vajradhara）无尽普被的利他功德──他也被称为‘原始佛’”（〈金鬘〉，序9），“位居三界之王及法王尊的金刚总持是三世诸佛、三宝及佛之三身的本质化现”[31]（《金鬘》，34），此法身佛常以净光报身的形式，对证悟的行者示现；因此，直接自金刚总持报身受持了法教的印度大成就者帝洛巴（Tilopa），就成为藏传噶举教派的第一位始祖。依照金刚总持的教授与指示，“当一位上师说显经（Suutra）的法时，他应同时说明佛陀的行谊事迹；当他教导密法（Shastras）时，当要详述编著者之生平；而当他给予实修指导时，便要指出自己上师的传承。”（《金鬘》，75）这也是为何藏传佛教各教特重上师传记的原因之一。
接着，我们不妨浏览一下空行母在帝洛巴简传中出现的时机与情形。首先，是帝洛巴应其父母的祈愿，降生在东孟加拉国札可城（Zako）、逐渐长大，有一天家里来了一位“丑陋”的女人，对其说道：“放牛 念经 你便会找到 空行之预言”后，便消失了。某日，当帝洛巴在放牛与念诵经文时，此妇人再度出现，对他表示：“你的家乡在北方的乌仗那，你的父亲是上乐金刚，你的母亲是金刚瑜伽母，你的哥哥是班渣巴那（Pantsapana），而我是你的姊姊赐喜（Bliss-giver）。假如你要找到真正的牛只，就到菩提树林里去，在那儿，清净的空行母持有口耳传承的法教。”[32]这个丑陋的女人，是乌仗那[33]（空行母净土）[34]的空行母之一，她给了帝洛巴带有象征意义的珠宝桥、水晶梯、和珊瑚柄的钥匙，让他得以顺利通过障碍──毒潭、铁墙和第一道门，进入空行母的净土。（《金鬘》，76-79）
在这个早先的情节（episodes）中，空行母即显现了多重的身分与指涉，她是“空行母净土中的女神”、“证悟共与不共成就的瑜伽女”[35]（Graham Coleman， 296）以及更为明显的“信差”（messengers）角色。根据第一世姜贡康楚仁波切所著《了义炬》（The Torch of Certainty）英译本的注释[36]中所指，“勇父（Daka，男性）与空行母（女性）分担护法的某些任务。空行母是女性菩萨，常常担任凡夫和佛菩萨之间的信差；”而且“护法帮助扫除行者的修行障碍，所以常现忿怒相，一直到魔障被征服为止。”（《了义炬》，88）在此处的空行母赐喜，兼具了帝洛巴的法源姊妹、护法与信差的多样角色，她带来了空行母口耳传承的讯息与暗喻（真正的牛只），并指点、协助（给予宝藏）他克服求法过程中可能遭遇到的阻碍与困难。
而 Nathan Katz 在《尼师与空行母：有关容格与藏传佛教的一项比较研究》(“Anima and mKha’-‘gro-ma: A Critical Comparative Study of Jung and Tibetan Buddhism”[37]一文中，也指出了“空行母的影响，在藏传佛教传记（rnam thar）中的普遍（主题）是标示出了‘转折点’的阶段。”（Katz，22）此时空行母的现身，会“吸引了这位未来成就者的注意力，并创造出一个时空，使旧有的习性模式，若不是遭到质疑，便是被彻底地粉碎。事实上，正因为她引导了一个全新的视界（insight），而这个视界的经验似乎能炸裂智识的藩篱与僵滞的心智，是故空行母被形容为‘戏耍的’（playful）、‘捉摸不定的’（capricious）。”（Willis，66）在帝洛巴传记接续的部份，可进一步了解这种智识的转换与空行母的试探戏耍。
就在帝洛巴打开第一道门后，他看到了无瑕空行母外在层次的化身，“这些数不清的化身外表狰狞恐怖，且嘴里发出刺耳吱声，张牙舞爪地要使他害怕。”（《金鬘》，79）但帝洛巴不为所动，而调伏了这些守护教法的化身空行母。之后，出现了报身层次的洛迦羯磨空行母（Loka Karma ?ākinī，意译为“世间事业空行”），帝洛巴做了三个降服的手印，调伏了这些空行母的身口意。最后他进入空行母的宫殿，见到了空行王后，先受持了有关气脉等珍贵的教法，后又接受最殊胜的身、口、意三宝藏的圆满密续，其间并经历一番针锋相对的对答，证明帝洛巴是已得空行授记的瑜伽行者，具有开启法宝的“任运解脱钥”。之后空行母给予帝洛巴四种灌顶，让其得到了共与不共的成就；这些智慧空行母还传予他口耳传承和心意传承的法教，共有十三种授自空行母的密续，此时的帝洛巴得大神通，能自在地翔飞于虚空之中。最后，一位无形的空行母还赐给了他九件法宝，领悟后的帝洛巴婉拒留在净土，回到人间静待有缘弟子那洛巴（Nāropa）与 Ririkasori 等。（《金鬘》，79-90）以上是帝洛巴传记中，有关“帝洛巴降伏空行母及受持空行母法教”的部份。
根据卡塔仁波切的说法，“噶举传承始于帝洛巴祖师，他由金刚总持直接得到法承。但由更深的层面来说，帝洛巴是经由智慧空行行母得到这些教法的。在金刚总持与帝洛巴之间传达的是智慧空行母，她担任桥梁的工作，将教法承递下去，如此，法教才能在世间弘扬。密续的高深法教是由空行母净土传来的，以空行母的语言传给这位高度的证悟者帝洛巴。”[38]（卡塔仁波切，236）
所以在上述段落，有关空行母王后与无形空行母传给帝洛巴密续教法、法宝的描述中，指出了智慧空行母的女性“智慧”本质、最高阶的承传者、法报化三身与密续上师的多重身分；且随着形貌怖畏的守护空行母、报身庄严的空行母到智慧空行母付法的过程中，一方面象征了空行母法、报、化三身的次第示现，另一方面也凸显出空行母对瑜伽行者“启发、导引、改变心智状态”的关连作用。“透过与空行母的接触，直觉的能力得以开展，并显现内观；若缺乏了空行母能量的活化（activation），修行将会是平板而智识化的。”
因为“空行母直接以生活经验传递，而非透过复杂的哲学论辩来传达，为此，空行母与密续的教法连结在一起，系因密法直接涉及了身、语、意能量的修持，远大过于显教经义的智识运作。”所以当修行者由知性的状态进入经验层次的密乘修持时，通常空行母便会首度现身，指引或暗示他接下来的进展方向。而“几乎在所有西藏的圣者故事中，都会有空行母在关键的时刻出现，行者与空行母的相遇，往往代表了一种对行者固定概念敏锐、犀利的挑战。”这个有关证悟的关键转化与打破僵化心智的复杂角色，清楚地显现在帝洛巴心子那洛巴由学者转为瑜伽士的寻法过程中。
在那洛巴成为最富盛名的那澜陀学院院长后，某日，当他在研读因明学的书籍时，出现了一位具有三十二丑相的老妇，诘问那洛巴是否懂得佛法的真义？并指示那洛巴去见她的哥哥，随后便化成一道彩虹消逝。“显现老乞婆样貌的空行母，是超越概念的本觉智慧（primordial wisdom），她的丑陋是因为那洛巴一直压抑与拒绝他内在的这个部份。这位本觉智慧的使者以隐匿的形态出现，是因为那诺巴一直蒙蔽自我，认为自己真正了解佛法，孰不知他只是不断在建造智识和条理化的迷宫罢了。”而妇人的三十二丑相，让他了解到轮回知负面特质的内、外、密层意义，“就外义而言，它代表三十二种产生轮回痛苦本质的粗细因果；就内义来看，它代表三十二种身心的染污；而就密义来说，它象征三十二轮脉中的三十二种行气。”[39]（《金鬘》，118）
受到启发的那洛巴，于是散尽全部资财，婉拒那澜陀学院五百班智达的挽留，决心离开，去寻找圆满证悟的上师。接着他受到空中传来声音的指点，在花布尸陀林诵持七十万遍的上乐金刚咒语后，有两位空行母示现（一说是在梦中，一说是亲身化现），给予那洛巴授记。从授记的预言中，“那洛巴了解到帝洛巴曾经七世都是他的上师”，于是“他辛勤地找了一个月，却一无所获。”在他心生怀疑后，又听到空中传来的声音，鼓励他继续找寻，先后经历了十二次的考验，分别是遇见了断崖边的痲疯妇人、长满蛆的狗、敲打他人头的男士、用剑砍人肠子的男人、清理人内脏的男人、王国与抛弃那洛巴的公主、正在持弓打猎的猎人、烧虱子的乞丐、钓鱼的老妇、杀父母的人、独眼国的独眼人[40]，最后，遍寻不获的那洛巴悲伤地想要自我了断时，空中又传来了声音，在那洛巴仰天祈请后，帝洛巴终于现身，收那洛巴为徒。
帝洛巴之所以迟迟未现身，是因为希望藉由试验的过程，让那洛巴意识到概念上的束缚与成见；但“因为缺乏与空行母的关连，无法了解其超越二元对立的象征语言，那洛巴仍是以‘自我’来行事，”也就一直无法亲见上师，而陷入世俗二元概念的幻境之中，最后那洛巴放弃掉对自我的执着，向虚空恳切地祈请后，方得才亲见上师（虽然先前他在“概念上”已经知晓了）。而对迈向证悟成就之道的行者（如求道中的那洛巴）来说，象征着空行母的女性角色，“提供了首次瞥见不二实相（non-dual reality）的机会；揭显现象界的空性本质；展现如魔术般幻境的舞蹈。这些经验可能与某位特殊的女性有关；也可能以连续遇见多位女性的方式，来显示空行母的智能；乃至（智慧空行母）不曾化身为任何女子。”在那洛巴传记中的空行母，曾至少出现过两回，很明显地符合了转折点的关键角色：第一次是老妇人对那洛巴的诘问，意味着空行母引发他对智性与世俗成就的怀疑，转而展开真正求法的艰辛旅程；第二次是那洛巴在尸林坟场苦修后，两位空行母现身、授记，让他知道自己宿世的有缘上师。由此可知，空行母化现的方式颇为多元、奇特，她可以在密乘行者的禅观、梦境中显现，也可能以凡夫之身、乃至动物（通常是母狗）的形式出现，为的是“不拘在任何时刻现身，闯入当时的情境中，测试、撼动未来成就者并阻绝其习性；”（Willis，66）或是“帮助密乘行者斩断妄念，转以能量的修持生起智慧。”
此外，在尸林修行也具有复杂的象征意义，除了与施身法传承（Ch Tradition）[41]的断除我执有密切关连外，忿怒空行母（wrathful ?ākinī）的能量也与坟场的黑暗、怖畏意象有关，瑜伽士必须通过忿怒空行母的试炼与戏耍，视这些境象为空性的幻化之舞，方能在密乘道上有进一步的提升。如帝洛巴首度遭遇挑战时，以无畏的能力折服了空行母，直达法性的宫殿；相对地，那诺巴一再地延误、错失良机，乃是因为他仍停留在二元化概念的状态，无法洞视空行母试探的幻象，难以与空行母（超越一切概念）的智慧能量产生连结的缘故。
要与空行母的能量接触，“有时是很骇人的，且总带着危险性”，但“在成就者的传记中，呈现出这些勇敢行者真正去寻觅‘空行母’的经过。为此，他们常历经险阻，并造访坟场与尸陀林。”而坟场与尸林所代表的象征，即是修行者自我的死亡，以进一步地融入空行母“无我”的智慧空性中。又为何与空行母的直接接触，会被形容为“历险”？主要是因为“这些偶遇通常带有一种基础的、实修的内观特质，而这种特质又是尖锐与忿怒的。这是黑暗女神本初的粗糙能量，往往一个清净的密乘行者必须接受自己内在的黑暗面后，才能在密乘道上有进一步的斩获。正因为如此，忿怒空行母常与血、肉有关连。”而“即便似乎是处在非道德的情境下，一个密乘的行者也可以、必须直接转化这个负面的状况，而不是去逃避。”[42]所以那洛巴在离开那澜陀寺后，最先的过渡便是到尸林苦修、持咒，再通过一层层的考验，逐渐脱却概念化的意识分别后，才得见上师──与空性智慧不可分离的方便。
在那洛巴心子马尔巴（Marpa，也就是噶举传承的第一位西藏祖师）的传记中，更可以看到他类似于那诺巴的历险遭遇──渡过毒潭、耗尽家财，及空行母的授记、襄助与关键性转化的描述。较为明显的部份，是马尔巴第二次前往印度求法时，去找上师之一的也希宁波（Yeshe Nyingpo），有一位服侍也希宁波、出身低贱的妇人，用手中的大水瓶给马尔巴灌顶，为其消除了一切障碍妄念，使他“见到了所有密集金刚（Guhyasamāja）的本尊。”随后也希宁波出现而给予他四灌顶和其它殊胜的法教；这是马尔巴与空行母的第一回接触，空行母消除了他接受高阶密法的障碍。之后，又有一次，当马尔巴再到印度南方探访另一位上师喜哇桑波（Shiwa Sangpo），在后者滚烫毒潭中的小岛上一同共修荟供时，出现了一位带着死尸的妇人，“她从头顶把脑壳切割下来，将喜哇桑波的尿和死尸的血混合盛在一起，她将此三昧耶甘露供养众人。当拿到马尔巴跟前时，甘露沸腾了起来，向里一探，马尔巴看到了《大幻化网》的咒字，并了悟其咒语之深义。”（《金鬘》，190-191）
此外，马尔巴还在空行母的引导下，前往另一位上师梅纪巴（Avadhutipa）所住的焰火山尸陀林，得到殊胜的灌顶，显现各种成就的兆相；又再到水树鬘，自骨饰瑜伽女（Yogini Bone Ornament）处获得了四座金刚教法。（190-194）而当马尔巴在印度住了二十年，将要回到西藏前夕，他去参访圣地并向上师辞行途中，又有几次空行母的示现，或给予灌顶（在恒河边的 Paciltra，于果园亲见甘露光传承的十五位圆满女性本尊）（《金鬘》，207）、或给予预言和加持（在尼泊尔 Ramadoli 尸陀林修荟供后，空行母在梦中授记，言明在他回藏的路上不会有任何障碍）（《金鬘》，208）、以及在梦中将他置于车座上，飞到南印的 Shri Parvara，接受了大成就者萨惹哈（Saraha）[43]的大手印教法。（《金鬘》，208-209）
从上述马尔巴的传记中，有关空行母的种种示现与引导、协助、灌顶等作用，乃至以忿怒相破除我执的惊人描述，同样可做为嗜血忿怒空行母／智慧空行母不拘形式化现的对照说明。而在马尔巴心子密勒日巴的传记中，也不乏类似的情节出现，因《密勒日巴尊者传》流传甚广，在此便不加赘述了。
从噶举派的上师传承传记中，显见空行母化现情形的着墨，在其它教派的上师传记中，也有诸多对空行母与成就上师之间互动关系的描写。例如萨迦派法教根源、印度八十四大成就者之一的勃哇巴，便是自巴契啰竹空行母处受持了法教，传法的过程，是“空行母将他吸进了右鼻孔，让他进入她的体内，……在一个吸气之间，他得到身、语、意、功德、事业的五种灌顶，也接受到了完整的教法。”（卡塔仁波切，237）另外，宁玛派祖师莲师的五位法侣，皆是金刚亥母（智慧空行母）的五位转世化身，以及在宁玛派最伟大的上师龙钦巴尊者（Longchen Rabjampa）与吉美林巴尊者（Jigme Lingpa）的传记中，也都有不少空行母示现、指引其开启伏藏（Terma）的描述；尤其是宁玛派历来的掘藏师（Terton），皆与空行母守护的伏藏有密切的关连，从 Janet Gyatso 所著的《自我的幻影：一位西藏大师的密传》（Apparitions of The Self: The Secret Autobiographies of a Tibetan Visionary），引用两本吉美林巴尊者亲撰的密传《水中月舞》（Dancing Moon in the Water）与《空行的殊胜秘语》（ākki’s Grand Secret-Talk）中，亦可发现与空行母有关的丰富资料，特别是《空行的殊胜秘语》，是尊者记述他在尼泊尔的大佛塔，亲见智慧空行母授予龙钦心髓伏藏[44]（Longchen Nyingtig Treasure）以空行秘语写成之法本，以及其后如何弘扬此法教的经过（Gyatso:1998，5）。
综言之，空行母“以多种形式显现，担任密续修行艰辛道上获得证悟成就临门一脚的、启发与协助的伙伴”。据 Katz 的统计，“在印度八十四位大成就者的传记中，有空行母为伴的便有五十六位”。此外，还有许多空行母转世的化身，如那洛巴的佛母尼古玛（Niguma），建立了著名的《那洛六法》传承；莲师的主要心子与佛母之一的益喜措嘉，传承了所有莲师的法教、埋藏伏藏与预言藏传佛教的兴替；玛尔巴证得虹光成就的佛母达媚玛（bDag-med-ma）；以及创建了藏传佛教施身法传承的玛吉拉准……等等。
从 Katz 对密乘成就者传记中空行母主要作用的归纳，或可做为本文探讨空行母在上师传记中角色、常见主题的总结。他整理出空行母在成就者传记中的特点，计有：1.对成就者产生启发与指引；2.直接或间接地给予成就者灌顶；3.充当成就者的功德主（patron）；4.成就者能力的来源；5.伏藏的守护者；6.成就者自传的主角。从上述举证的噶举派金鬘传承上师传记中，亦可与Katz列举之六大主题相互对照。
四、结语
不管是在男性上师传记或女性上师传记的叙事中，依循或分类的重点并不在于性别的差异。因为在密续的修持中，既已超越了世俗的概念，对于性别、阶级、身份之分也一概超越了。
依据究竟空性或三身的教授，男性或女性只是本质上的能量代言，仅是世俗谛层次的方便诠说，在根本上并无分别。若仔细分析藏传佛教上师传记的书写体例，除了外、内、密传的分类外，其叙事上有一共通的成规：皆在描述一位凡夫如何发心出离尘世、面对修行中种种的内外困境与障碍，终于自轮回中解脱并利益无数众生的过程。在这些过程中，空行母的示现、指引、点化乃至成就者领悟到自身本具的智慧空行母三身本质，可殊途同归地指出了某种根本意旨——也就是众生佛性湛然、平等无别的共通性。在论述中强调出空行母的女性特质，无非是希望在面对质疑女性证悟能力的说法时，能藉以反驳与澄清，阐明佛性本无“性别差异”的实相而已。
注释：
1. 藏传佛教修持系统中，有极微精密的分类与对应关系，通常以外、内、密等三个等级来区分与归类，例如在“外”相上的三宝：佛、法、僧，在“内”的层次上即为三根本：上师、本尊、空行，到了“密”的层次，则是三身：法身、报身、化身。这三／三／三的对应关系互为连属、彼此密不可分。
2. 文殊菩萨的佛母。
3. 参见 Sarat Chandra Das，A Tibetan-English Dictionary（rpt., Delhi:Motilal Babarsidass, 1970）, p.180（Willis, n. 7）。
4. 参见1895年 L. Austine Waddell，Tibetan Buddhism（London: Allen & Co.; New York: Dover Publications, 1972），p.366 ( Willis, n. 6)。
5. 为 Keith Dowman 英译益喜措嘉佛母传记的书名。
6. 高阶与低阶的区隔，仅是为了定义上与描述上的方便，并无政治、性别或阶级上的意识型态意涵。
7. 商羯罗生于南印度之摩拉巴尔，生卒年约公元700-750年，另有一说谓780-820年间。他承袭吠陀学说的冥思方式与奥义书“万物一体”的理论，又吸收大乘佛教思想及耆那教的部分教义，而改婆罗门教为印度教。他建立了绝对一元论的思想体系，认为现实世界皆为幻相，唯有个人精神（我）和宇宙最高原则（梵），是同一不二的真实存在。
8. 关于西方当代中观研究的流变与“洋格义”诠释，可参考林镇国先生《欧美学界中观哲学诠释史略》，《台大佛学研究中心学报》第二期（1997.7），p.281-307，与万金川先生《中观思想讲录》第十一章〈中观学研究的过去与现在〉，p.171-196。
9. 包括瑜伽行派与小乘正量部的论战、中观学派与瑜伽行派的论辩、以及中观应成派月称对小乘有部、经部与大乘唯识、清辨中观自续派论点的驳斥等，相关史略，请参考吕澄《印度佛教思想概论》，p.258-286。
10. 湿婆又称鲁达罗（梵文为 Rudra，意指荒神）。是印度教信仰中的毁灭之神、苦行之神与舞蹈之神。
11. 为了区别，在论及印度教体系中的 ākinī 时，皆从其古音译“荼吉尼”，而“空行母”一词，则用于印度晚期密乘与藏传佛教的相关讨论中。
12. 雅隆位于西藏中部，是西藏历史上重要的藩国之一。
13. 此译名为笔者参照藏文拼音所译出，不尽详切，但却可大致窥出由古老神话与泛灵信仰混杂所形成的女神形貌。
14. 据说慈悲的观音菩萨，化身为一只公猿，与独居在深山中的岩石魔女（rock demoness）结合，其后代便是藏人的始祖。
15. 藏传佛教中的菩萨属于男性，不若汉地信仰中将观音菩萨女性化。
16. 即由早期小乘对女性的歧视，视女性为贪欲、不净的对象，到大乘佛教中女性观的逐步修正、扩展，认为男女在证悟能力上的平等性。
17. 这与空行母在证悟成佛时的愿力有关，譬如观世音菩萨化身之一、兼为本尊与空行的绿度母，在成佛时便发愿，愿世世以女身救度众生。
18. 此处的黑体表示英文的大写。
19. 四种手印分别是：三昧耶手印、智慧羯摩手印、法印与大手印。而手印的意义，则包含了封缄、誓言（commitment）、象征、手势、姿态以及空行母或法侣等六种。详细内容请参考 Sky Dancer 第四章《灌顶与教示》（“Initiation and Instruction”），益喜措嘉佛母接受莲师灌顶与修持的经过，或参见p.192页注8。
20. 指超越一切概念、非戏论，清净无染污的证悟状态。分说胜义谛与世俗谛“二谛”，是中观学派的根本要义之一。请详见龙树菩萨的《中论》与月称法师的《入中论》。
21. 英文中对“空性”尚无可确切迻译的字词，因此有各种翻译，如 Emptiness, Nothingness, Voidness 等，最常见的译法为 Emptiness，即梵文中的 sunyata 或藏文的 sTong pa nyid 之意。
22. 关于空行母外、内、密三阶段的释义，系 Willis 引述 Geshe Jampel Thar’dod 的说明。见p.153注57。
23. 五方佛父与其眷属（法侣），依次是中方的毗卢遮那佛与宁初玛（Nying Tsukma）、东方的不动佛与给玛（Gyema）、南方的宝生佛与那玛吉（Namaki）、西方的阿弥陀佛与那札卡嫫（Naza Karmo）、北方的不空成就佛与丹企卓玛（Damtsik Drolma）。
24. 有关五大空行母更为详尽的解说，请参考 Thinley Norbu Rinpoche 所著的 Magic Dance：The Display of the Self-Nature of the Five Wisdom ?ākinīs（Boston & London: Shambhala, 1981, rpt.1999）。
25. 五大与“中阴”的教授也有密切的关系，可参考达赖喇嘛《藏传佛教世界》第十九章《无上瑜伽修行》有关“死亡、中阴、转生”部份的解说p.130-136。
26. 此黑体为笔者所加，意在强调密续仪轨中的象征意义。
27. 四知解义即文字义、普通义、隐藏义、究竟义四种。六参数的三组对照分别为：1.说明与定义参数；2.意欲与无意参数；3.字义与非字义参数。详文请参见《藏传佛教世界》p.124-126。
28. 有关女性上师传记的外、内、密传差异，可参考拙文《智慧的女性：试论藏传佛教之女性上师传记》，发表于88年9月《中外文学》第二十八卷第四期，页188-211。
29. 如外密三乘：事部、行部、瑜伽部，以及内密的无上瑜伽部（外密与内密的四部，又合称为“四部瑜伽”），对空行母的阐释与观修法便大有不同。在无上瑜伽部的三个修行阶段：生起次第（Mahayoga）、圆满次第（Anuyoga）、大圆满（Adiyoga），或另称内密三乘：父密续、母密续、不二密续，及其下更为细部的教法、仪轨中，会有极细密的分说与释义，以因应不同的修持状态与传承。详见《藏传佛教世界》第三部份《西藏的金刚乘佛教》的说明，p. 90-153。
30. 此书的藏文原典由金鬘传承的上师之一吉天颂恭的再传弟子多杰泽悟（Dorje Dze ?d）所撰录，英译本由旅美止贡噶举派的堪布 K?nchog Gyaltsen 翻译，Victoria Juckenpahler 编辑而成。
31. 三世指过去、现在、未来；三宝即佛、法、僧；佛之三身为法身、报身、化身。
32. 上乐金刚是噶举派的父续（男性）本尊之首，金刚亥母则为母续（女性）本尊之首。此处的金刚亥母为上乐金刚的明妃，身红色、顶有猪首；当其以顶无亥首的形式显现时，即等同于金刚瑜伽母，金刚瑜伽母多见于噶举、萨迦、格鲁派的修持仪轨。参见 Graham Coleman ed., A Handbook of Tibetan Culture，有关金刚亥母（Vajravarahi）、与金刚瑜伽母(Vajrayogini)的解释条目，p.412-3。
33. 乌仗那也就是前述有关空行母净土的乌仗那国。古译又称乌孙国、乌长国、乌场国、乌缠国、乌苌国。位于当时北印度健驮罗国的北方，东边隔着印度河与乌剌尸国及迦湿弥罗国相对，相当于今日兴都库什山脉（Hindu kush）以南之丘陵地带，也就是在现今的巴基斯坦境内。
34. 关于空行母净土的由来，系为释迦牟尼佛三转法轮、传下金刚乘的密法时，有成千上万的女性自莲师的净土乌仗那前往听法，立时证悟佛果，于是被称为空行母，因为接受密乘的教法时女性远多于男性，因此空行母的数量远超过男性的勇父。于是“在那之后，密乘的法教就被殆尽更高的境域中──空行母净土，而空行母也就成为密续的法教之源。”（卡塔仁波切，231-2）关于空行母的数量，从益喜措嘉佛母传记的第八章中或可约略揣想，其中描述措嘉在入涅之前，对其十一位心子传法、授记后，在第八天里，自四面八方涌来了无数的空行母．有乌金净土（乌仗那空行净土）的十二类、一千两百万忿怒空行母，十二类嗜血啖人的世间空行五百万五千五百位，更低阶的十二类时间空行一千两百一十二万……，以及其它各类、难以想象的空行母。（Dowman．166）、（Tarthang Tulku，194-5）
35. 共的成就指世俗谛的四种事业（息、增、怀、诛）成就，不共成就是证悟了究竟佛性（空性）的胜义境界。
36. 第一世姜贡康楚仁波切是十九世纪末西藏最伟大的三位上师之一，他与蒋扬钦哲汪坡、秋究林巴、米滂仁波切等在东藏共同推动了利美（Rime，无分教派）运动，保存、整理、传承了无数珍贵的法教，被诩为藏传佛教的文艺复兴。姜贡康楚仁波的《了义炬》，是对藏传佛教各教派最主要的修行基础──四加行的阐释，其英译本系 Judith Hanson 做为加拿大哥伦比亚大学文学硕士的论文，其注释大致引用噶举派卡卢仁波切（Kalu Rinpoche）、珍由仁波切（Tsengyur Rinpoche）、萨迦派德松仁波切（Deshung Rinpoche）与西藏学者罗桑拉陇巴（Lobsang P. Lhalungpa）的说明。
37. 见 The Tibet Journal, vol.2. no. 3 (Autumn 1977)，p. 13-43. (Cit. Willis，note 10.)
38. 有关空行母秘密语言的说明，请参考 Women of Wisdom 引文中”The Language of Dakini”的部份，p.42-46。
39. 相对地，转化这一切、清净了所有染污后的佛陀，就显现圆满的三十二相随行好。
40. 这些考验均是帝洛巴或空行母的化身试探，每个段落皆为了彰显内在的象征意义，破除那洛巴的我执与概念，并非一般的世俗现象，请参见《金鬘》p.124-132的描述。
41. 有关施身法的修行与法脉，以及创建施身法的玛吉拉卓传记，请参考 Jér?me Edou，Machig Labdron And The Foundations of Ch?d（1996）一书，或拙文《智慧的女性：试论藏传佛教之女性上师传记》。
42. 在此，可以对照前述的印度教伽梨女神扈从荼吉尼的嗜血形象，但其负面的、恐怖的特质在进入密乘，「转化」为忿怒空行或护法的过程中，已被转化为正面的、帮助行者破除我执的象征性教义。
43. 有关萨惹哈由大学者转变为密乘瑜伽士的过程，与那洛巴有几分近似，他在市场遇到了一位出身低贱的化身空行母，无视众人的争议，尊其为上师。有一回在这位妇人煮咖哩萝卜时，萨惹哈入定了十二年，出定后因为这位空行母的点化，才真正放下概念的分别。请参见 Women of Wisdom 前言中的相关段落，p.38-39。
44. 系由龙钦巴尊者所传下的大圆满法教，也是目前盛行欧美的卓千法（藏文的 Dzogchen，即大圆满法），是宁玛派最甚深、殊乘的教法。
参考书目
1.何文心译，堪布卡塔仁波切着《证悟的女性》。台北：众生，1995。
2.卓格多杰着，《火舞空行──移喜蹉嘉传奇》。台北：圆明，1997。
3.陈琴富译，达赖喇嘛着《藏传佛教世界》。台北：立绪，1997。
4.谢思仁译，堪布昆丘嘉真、维多利亚．哈肯巴勒编译《噶举金鬘传承上师》。台北：众生，1996。
5.郑振煌译，姜贡康楚仁波切、塔汤仁波切著《了义炬·活用佛法》。台北：慧炬，1989。
6.吕澄《印度佛学思想概论》。台北：天华，1982。
7.万金川《中观思想讲录》。嘉义：香光书乡，1998。
8.林镇国《欧美学界中观哲学诠释史略》，《台大佛学研究中心学报》第二期（1997, 07）P. 281-307。
9.Janet Gyatso,”Down With the Demonesss: Reflections on a Feminine Ground in Tibet” in Janice Willis ed., Feminine Ground: Essays on Women and Tibet. New York: Snow Lion, 1987, p.33-51.
10.---,Appatitions of the Self: The Secret Autobiographies of A Tibetan Visionary. New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press, 1998.
11.Graham Coleman ed., A Handbook of Tibetan Culture: A guide to Tibetan Centres and Resources Throughout the World. New Delhi: Rupa & Co., 1993.
12.Janice Willis, “Dakini: Some Comments on Its Nature and Meaning”, in Janice Willis ed. Feminine Ground: Essays on Women and Tibet. New York: Snow Lion, 1987.
13.Jér?me Edou, Machig Labdr?n and the Foundations of Ch?d. New York: Snow Lion,1996
14.Keith Dowman,Master of Mahamudra: Songs and Histories of the Eighty-Four Buddhist Siddhas. New York: State Univ. of New York, 1985.
15.---,Sky Dancer : The Secret Life and Songs of The Lady Yeshe Tsogyel. New York: Snow Lion, 1996.
16.Sandy Johnson, The Book of Tibetan Elders: The Life Stories and Wisdom of the Great Spiritual Masters of Tibet. New York: Riverhead Books, 1996.
17.Tarthang Tulku, Mother of Knowledge: The Enlightenment of Ye-shes mTsho-rgyal. Berkeley: Dharma Publisher, 1983
18.Tsultrim Allione, Women of Wisdom. Arkana: Penguin Books,1984( First published, 1984)
19.Tulku Thondup, Masters of Meditation and Miracles: The Longchen Nyingthig Lineage of Tibetan Buddhism. Boston: Shambhala, 1996.
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“空行母”（?ākinī）一词在藏传佛教中，具有多元且甚深的象征意涵。就修行层面而言，空行母是佛、法、僧三宝的内相“三根本”（three roots，指上师、本尊、空行）中，负责护持佛行“事业”的根本，是女性的佛母、成就者与大护法等的集合名词。
本文即试从藏传佛教“空行母”（?ākinī）的议题入手，藉由其根源与定义的探讨，从字源学的历史演变切入，到扣合佛教由印度传入西藏前、后空行母字义的衍异，论及空行母在藏传佛教史上的地位与相关法教。此外，在本文中也将以噶举派“金鬘”上师传承传记为例，探讨其间空行母所具有的丰富、多元的象征和作用，以做为实例的参照。
关键词：空行母（?ākinī）、藏传佛教（Tibetan Buddhism）、藏传佛教传记（rNam-thar）、密乘
（Tantra）、三根本（Three Roots）、护法（Dharma Protectors）
一、前言
“空行母”一词在藏传佛教中，具有多元且甚深的象征意涵。就修行层面而言，空行母是佛、法、僧三宝的内相[1]“三根本”（上师、本尊、空行）中，负责护持佛行“事业”的根本（root），是女性的佛母、成就者与大护法等的集合名词。但这仅是分类上的方便归属，空行母也可以是上师：如益喜措嘉、玛吉拉准……等女性的传承祖师；也有属于本尊类别的绿度母、金刚亥母、妙音佛母[2]……等。这些互涉、错综的关系，除了使其在名相或专有名词上的定义不易外，也增添了不少相关研究上的难度。
本文即试从藏传佛教“空行母”（?ākinī）的议题入手，藉由其根源与定义的探讨，从字源学的历史演变切入，到扣合佛教由印度传入西藏前、后空行母字义的衍异，论及空行母在藏传佛教史上的地位与相关法教。透过空行母在藏传佛教上师传记所扮演的角色分析，可深入了解女性本质（female principle）的“开悟”与“清净”特性。此外，从上师传记中有关空行母的关键叙述，以及其所发挥的“启发、引导、破除执着妄念”等作用，更可彰显佛教“男女平等”的观点论述，也间接驳斥了小乘佛教执持女身不净说，或主张男女证悟能力有别的偏颇看法。因此在本文中也将以噶举派“金鬘”上师传承传记为例，探讨其间空行母所具有的丰富、多元的象征和作用，以做为实例的左证和参考。
二、空行母的定义与类别
美国卫思礼大学（Wesleyan University）宗教系主任 Janice D. Willis 在其撰写的《空行母：其本质与意义的相关评述》（“?ākinī : Some Comments on Its Nature and Meaning”）一文中，曾概述了历来西方学界对“空行母”一词的定义与演绎。从早先将空行母附比为西方神话中的“精灵”（fairies）[3]、“复仇女神”(Furies)[4]，到近年来较为贴近藏传佛教意旨的“空中舞者”（Sky Dancer）[5]诠释，我们可以发现，西方学界对空行母一词的语意与辞源研究，大致扣合了佛教史的发展脉络，即是以印度晚期佛教密乘（Tantra）中的空行母辞源探究，与密乘传入西藏后有关空行母定义的扩延，初步可概分为两大类型：一是印度佛教密乘时期的空行母初义，二为藏传佛教中的空行母释义。其中，前者涉及了将印度教神祇转化为佛教密续本尊（Deity）和护法（Dharmapāla）的过程，而后者则涵盖莲师（Guru Rinpoche, Padmasambhava）入藏后降服当地女性神灵与邪魔，将其纳入空行、护法之列的蜕变。换言之，在这两个过程中，都出现了将外道神灵或图腾转换为佛教信仰的吸纳与驯化作用，并由此扩展了空行母的繁复意象与定义，也区隔出空行母的两大类阶：即高阶[6]的、已然证悟成佛的智慧空行母，以及低阶的护法神祇（世间神祇）。
（一）、印度大乘佛教晚期的空行母语源及定义
据佛教学者吕澄在《印度佛学思想概论》书中的界分，晚期印度大乘佛学传扬的时期，大约从第七世纪到十二世纪之间，而自十世纪起，密教成为晚期大乘佛学的主流，直到十三世纪初回教徒入侵印度、大举灭佛为止。关于密乘在晚期印度佛教史上的兴盛，除了当时的大型寺院，如超戒寺、那澜陀寺等对密教的重视与倡导之外，也因为大乘佛学发展到晚期，有渐趋于繁琐哲学的倾向，其深奥的理论与教义辩争，不易为一般信徒所亲近与了解，“为了争取群众，便采取了印度教的方法，这就是密教发生的主要原因。”（吕澄，256）吕澄认为晚期印度佛教密乘思想的崛起，乃是为了世俗宏化与大众信仰所生的权变，但若从大乘佛教思想核心“缘起”与“空性”的观点着眼，则密乘对印度教教义、仪式的吸纳与移转，也可谓是当时社会、政治、宗教各方面因缘和合的结果，同时也指出了佛教思想的适时性与包容性。
至于密乘吸纳了印度教信仰的背景，在当时印度各宗教思想勃发，重整、互融与论辩情形显见的情况下，也可以找到教义上的左证。有一个著名的例子，是八世纪阐扬婆罗门教“吠檀多”派思想的商羯罗[7]，他所主张的“梵我不二”思想，与二、三世纪龙树菩萨的中观思想──“空性”与“二谛”说，颇为近似。
因此当代西方的中观研究学者[8]，不乏将密乘中心思想的中观学（Madhyamika），诠解、附会为受到了印度教吠檀多哲学的影响，例如俄国学者舍尔巴茨基（Stcherbastky）在1927年出版的《佛教的涅盘概念》一书中，便“力主中观哲学为一元论（monism），犹如商羯罗的吠檀多哲学一样，主张唯一无二的实在，而以杂多现象为虚妄。”（林镇国，4）。同样地，吕澄也采取了类似的看法，他认为吸取了佛教思想、足迹遍及印度，学说风行一时的商羯罗，“对佛教确实产生了影响，由此开了中观与密教相结合的途径，密教即以中观思想为中心，而使中观势力大为抬头。”（吕澄，256-7）
仔细思考商羯罗与中观思想的主、从影响问题，前述学者的观点不免令人质疑：从六、七世纪佛教各学派的系列论争[9]，不难发现佛教各学派的论师，皆娴知当时婆罗门教、印度教、耆那教等外道论述，其目的是为了“以子之茅，攻子之盾”地辩破其论点，而非肯定、支持外道学说，遑论是受其影响了。如此便陈言中观学派乃吠檀多思想的演绎，恐有失诸草率与误读之虞，另外在年代的推演上，也不符合其历史脉络的前后顺序，足见西方中观学者的诠解尚待商榷。
尽管商羯罗的“吠檀多”教义与佛教中观思想之间的影响问题，有待进一步厘清与考证，但从商羯罗的例子，可推知当时印度各教派思想间的互融与改写，应是甚为活络，因此佛教密乘中出现对印度教神祇、图征、崇拜仪式的转换情形，自是不难想见。有关空行母一词的辞源，便有指称是出自印度教女性神祇的说法。
在 Sir Monier-Williams 编纂的《梵英字典》（A Sanskrit-English Dictionary，1899；rpt. 1964）中，即认为空行母的梵文字义 ākinī，是指“啖人肉”之“伽梨女神（Kālī）的女性侍从”（Willis，61、150）。此处的伽梨女神，乃印度教三大主神之一、主司破坏的天神湿婆[10]（iva）之妻，是印度教性力派崇奉的主神之一，“其形貌凶恶，遍体黑色，具四头四手（一说十头十手），额上有第三只眼，手执各类兵器，胸前悬挂髑髅，腰挂人手。此神专喝恶魔之鲜血，象征强大与新生。”（《佛光大辞典》，p.2768）而做为伽梨女神扈从的金刚瑜伽母（Vajrayoginī），其形貌则为右手执持钺刀，右手持握天灵盖做成的颅器，内呈满鲜血。
另外，Keith Dowman 在《空中舞者：益喜措嘉佛母的秘密生平与道歌》（Sky Dancer: The Secret Life and Songs of the Lady Yeshe Tsogyel）书末的附文《女性与空行母》(“Woman and the ākinī”）中，也表明了空行母一词，是“佛教引自性力派的词汇，在性力派的祭仪当中，荼吉尼是啖人血肉之伽梨女神的侍从」[11]（Dowman，258）。伽梨女神嗜血啖肉的形象，从其崇拜仪式必须以鲜血牲祭，方能得到恩赐与满愿的说法，可以得到强化，因此其侍从荼吉尼同为饮血女神的怖畏意象，也随之承袭了下来，并过渡到佛教的信仰体系之中。据《大日经疏》第十卷记载，”荼吉尼系大黑神之眷属、夜叉鬼之一；有自在之神通力，能于六个月前得知人之死期，遂预先取食其心，而代之以他物，直至此人合当命终时，始告败坏；盖修此法者可得神通、大成就。毘卢遮那佛为除此众，故以降伏三世之法门，化作大黑神而收摄之，令彼皆归命于佛。”（《佛光大辞典》，p.4781）这是荼吉尼由外道被摄受、转化为密乘护法神的可考文献之一，“佛教化”后的空行母，在内涵与象征上皆有了大幅的转变，不若先前般邪恶与阴森了。
为了进一步分析从印度教荼吉尼到密乘空行母之间的变化，亦可参考 Willis 前文中的相关阐述，她用“前佛教时期”（pre-Buddhist）来标明未入佛教之前的荼吉尼语义，并列举出西方学界对荼吉尼的诠释，约略如下：一是 David Snellgrove 在1957年出版的《喜马拉雅的佛教徒》（Buddhist Himalaya）一书中，指称“和乌仗那（Uddiyana）有特殊关连的女性神祇，名为空行母。她们常出现在密续典籍之中，显现为瑜伽士（yogin）的道伴，在瑜伽士朝访圣地群集其身旁”，且“因为阴森、鄙琐的行事风格，使其名符其实地配得了‘女巫’（witch）之名。到西藏神话之中的空行母，则有了更为温和的面向……”（Willis，59）Snellgrove 对空行母的描述，暗示了印度教伽梨女神扈从荼吉尼的残留形象，且对于成就者、上师传记中空行母所扮演的关键性指引角色，也有了初步的着墨，在下文有关传记中空行母角色的部份，会有更详尽的举证。
其二，是1978年 Martin Kalff 在《上乐金刚传承中的空行母》（”?ākinīs in the Cakrasa?vara Tradition”）一文中，对“前佛教时期”与密乘两大类别之空行母的阐释，Kalff 指出前佛教时期有如邪魔般（demonic）的荼吉尼，在《入楞伽经》（Lankāvatāra Suutra）中曾有记载，经文中描述某个食肉者“会从荼吉尼的腹中，降生为啖肉生灵，其后投胎为夜叉（Rāk?asi）和猫；隶属于人类最低的种性阶级。”（Willis，60）这段引文将荼吉尼与另一类啖肉生灵──夜叉相提并论，概因两者皆是在尸林、坟场活动的女性神魔，也都以食人肉的怖畏形象著称。Kalff认为这类位阶较低等的女性邪灵，与上乐金刚（Cakrasa?vara）密续中已经证悟成佛的空行母大异其趣，“意味着前佛教时期低阶荼吉尼的形式，随着密乘的盛行，被整合纳入佛教体系之中。”（60）
另外，James Robinson 在其英译的《佛陀之狮：八十四大成就者传记》（Buddha’s Lion: The Lives of the Eighty- Four Siddhas，1979）中，则推测“空行母”一词的梵文辞源，可能来自于和“飞行”有关的字义，这种根据字面意义诠释的方式，从空行母的藏文中，可以更明显地察见。
（二）、藏传佛教中的“空行母”定义与类别
空行母的藏文为mkha’ gro ma音译为Khandroma，mkha 意指“虚空”，gro 则表示“行走、步入”之意，ma 是一般泛称女性的字尾，整个字词合起来的意思，是指“空中的女性行者”。但 Willis 认为单是如此，仍不足以表达空行母的丰富意涵，于是举出三位西方学者的诠释，来补充说明“空行母”一词的象征含义。其中，Herbert Guenther 主张藏文空行母字词中的“虚空”、“天界”（celestial space）字根，具有与“空性”（emptiness）相等的指涉，而“行”字则意谓“证入”（to understand），因此空行母是指“了悟空性的女性成就者”；而 Anagarika Govinda 则表示 mkha 代表“虚空、第五元素的以太（ether）、无法得见形体的活动”，’gro 为“行走、移动”，所以空行母概指“以女性形象示现的天人，她们具有明净的虚空本性，在天空中悠走自如。”；至于 James Robinson 则认为空行母的定义是“证悟空性的女性”，也就是“智慧的女性化身”。
从 Willis 引述三位学者对空行母藏文字义的诠释，对照前述印度密乘对印度教女神的转化，可发现空行母的两大类别──高阶／低阶、证悟／世间、智慧天女／嗜血地祇──呼之欲出，而佛教密乘的印度、西藏分期，也呈现了对空行母定义的衍伸与扩充，从语源学（etymology）上的分析可以找到充分的例证。
至于密乘传入西藏后对空行母定义的扩延，除了强化其证悟、智能的阴性本质（feminine principle）之外，早先印度教嗜血女神的残余意象，也被带入了具神话传奇、泛灵信仰的原始神祇之列，尤其是这些女性地祇，受莲师调伏而转为藏密的护法之后，其原先的苯教、邪灵色彩，也渐趋淡化与稀释，另附上了“面恶心善”的正面新形象。从 Janet Gyatso 研究西藏原始女魔的文章《邪灵底蕴：反思西藏的女性根源》（”Down With the Demonesss: Reflections on a Feminine Ground in Tibet”）中，可以看出这种将外道、泛灵信仰转纳入佛教体系的变异。
Gyatso 表示在公元八、九世纪左右，西藏军事力量甚为强大的时期（也就是唐史上的“吐蕃”时期），其女性的地位与重要性不容轻忽，除了在政治上后妃拥有对吐蕃王的决策影响力之外，母系社会的遗迹在“子从母姓”的风俗上也依稀可辨，而在原始的泛灵信仰、鬼神系谱上，女性神祇也占有举足轻重的份量。她引述 Erik Haarh 在《雅隆王朝》[12]（The Yar-lun Dynasty，1969）一书中的研究资料，显见当时的西藏有不少前佛教的女神传说，例如九个原初蛋（primordial eggs）之母的“贪爱王母”（Srid pa’i rgyal mo）、西藏国王始祖演绎而来的“毛妖女王”（sPu yul mo btsun gung rgyal）、“祖王母”（A phyi gnam gyi gung rgyal）等，加上敦煌出土的西藏格言史料中，亦暗示了五世纪左右青海松巴（Sum-pa）群落中女性的强大势力，这些例子足以证明女性在西藏部落社会所具有的重要性。接着，Gyatso 指出藏地女性神祇特有的一支，名为“辛”（Srin）的女魔，最能代表古老西藏神灵纵横的现象，且符合史料对原始西藏“蛮荒野地”、“红发食肉恶魔”、“恶鬼肆虐”等的描述。从“辛”的演变与探讨中，Gyasto 也发现了这些神话或传说的建立，与佛教传入、驯化“野蛮、贫乏”藏民信仰的过程有关（Gyatso，33-35）。
Gyatso 陈言“辛是一种特别凶暴的邪灵，后来在迻译上被等同于印度的夜叉”，其出现在许多古老的西藏神话之中，或与藏人始祖伏魔的传说产生联系。这种外显女形的“辛魔”（Srin-mo），为数众多且形貌奇诡，在噶举派的典籍中曾描绘其首领之一是“蛙头血眼”，而 F.W. Thomas 在《古代俗文学》（Ancient Folk Literature）中则以敦煌古卷为例，提及的 Srin-mo 计有“神手母”（Phyag na yed mo）、“杂藏鸟母”（Pod ldungs sdu khlad kyi pya khyi ma）、“黑苯母”(gNag brang ma)[13]等；从其名称上不难想见这些辛魔的怪异形貌，与其混杂的古老神话、苯教与泛灵信仰元素。自八世纪密乘传入西藏后，史载莲师曾在 Rong rong lung panag po 一地，降服了众多的辛魔，使其归顺、发誓成为佛教的忿怒尊（wrathful deities）与护法。由此，可大略看出辛魔在归化佛教前后的差异性──主要是在内涵与象征上的逆转，以及此过程与印度密乘“度化”外道女神的模拟性：在前佛教时期的辛魔，相当于印度的夜叉或啖人嗜血的印度教女神，相反地，被佛教摄受、驯服后的辛魔，则有了新的属性与象征意义，且被赋予了保护教法、利益行者、守护誓言等的多重使命。
除了探讨辛魔在佛教传入前的原始样貌外，Janet Gyatso 也试图分析辛魔的女性特质，凸显其在苯教或泛灵信仰中的“地”祇特性，并将之与古希腊女神信仰的“大地之母”形象相互比对。
此外，Gyatso 也质疑为何佛教传入西藏后，便视藏地的女性根源（the feminine ground）为鬼怪、蛮荒与邪恶的代表？她认为在藏族的始祖传说[14]中，便隐含了这种“嗜杀、身强体健、勇敢”的魔女成份，相异于突显“慈悲、精神性”的男性始祖（观音菩萨）[15]特质。Gyatso 将这种性别象征上的差异，置入当代西方女性主义佛学的批判架构之中，与 Diana Paul 研究佛教女性身分的变革脉络[16]产生勾连，认为视女性为邪恶根源的说法，基本上是小乘部派佛教观点的残留。
有趣的是，在苯教典籍中，也将女性视为魔鬼、贪执的化身，同样是充满了负面的评价；而在佛教成为藏民的主要信仰之后，苯教仪式与原始女神、辛魔等外道，除了披覆上某种古老、野蛮、邪恶的映象外，其本身也开始产生了质变，像是苯教经典便吸取佛教教义，改头换面以谋求教脉的延续。因此，对外道女神形象的改写，可能不单是佛教对外来事物转化、调和的关系，也有可能是外道为了求生存而自动嫁接的结果。
归言之，如果说西藏前佛教时期的女性始祖与女神形象，存有和小乘“不净”女性观的近似性；那么藏密对女性的尊崇（瑜伽行者视女性为空行母化身、智慧的代表），则可谓等同于大乘主张的性别平等论了。另一方面，辛魔一系的女性神祇由早期的“地母”形象，转变为后来的“空行”护法身分，这由地至天的演化过程，也许隐含了其它象征与诠释的可能，对照于基督教女性神学对“天父／地母”的性别论述，或可延伸出另一个比较研究的议题。
除此，Janet Gyasto 也强调与其认为辛魔是某种女性或神祇，不如说她是一种信仰，是一种强势的文化信仰与世界观，在上述简化、鄙夷女性的说法之外，其实具有更为深沉的意义与象征。同样地，有关空行母的定义与角色诠释，也不仅限于入佛前后的差异或天／地位阶的差别而已，她也拥有更为细密、广泛的指涉，更趋近于抽象、内在的象征层次。
（三）、其它有关空行母的定义
在探讨空行母文章的末尾，Willis 提出了几个有关空行母特性与定义的普遍性结论。首先，她认为“空行母指的是一种阴性本质”，而非具象的女性形体，虽然空行母常以女性的样貌示现[17]，因为“在密续的象征系统中，为了表示殊胜的开悟特质（Enlightenment），空行母大多显现女性形体”。
事实上密乘中的空行母，象征的是一个具足的整体（whole being），而不能以世俗化约的性别差异概念，来看待其所代表的阴性本质。同样地，Keith Dowman 也表示“‘上师’与‘空行母’是内在形上的实体，基本上每个人的精神层面都兼具了男性与女性本质，……即便空行母无远弗届的空性（Emptiness），也不能与隐现的方便（Skilful Means）分离开来。”[18]
智慧与方便的不二，就如同阴性与阳性本质的兼备，难以男女性别做为判准，男性行者的内在也具备了空行母的阴性特质──也就是智慧的本性。因此，瑜伽士在修行时，其女性特质便会以四种手印（mudrā）[19]的方式显现，“与其将空行母定义为人类（指女性），不如理解她是在完美内观（insight）与方便结合时，清净一切染污之空性本质的展现。”而到了密乘修持的最上层境界，也就是四印最高成就的大手印境界时，空行母已臻化境而不可思议，此时“她是空性神人同体（anthropomorphic）的示现，即是在转变中、如梦如幻、清净、涵摄一切的明觉（Awareness）。”在此的上师与空行母定义，已超乎平常、字典中所描述“精神导师”与“女神化身”之意了。
其次，从胜义谛[20]的观点看来，空行母所代表的是一种最高的证悟智慧，“她是对空性（Voidness）最直接、不假他物（unmediated）、非概念的了悟”[21]，此状态是无法落于言诠的。
此外，在密乘的修行中，上师、本尊、空行是缺一不可的三根本，也是最重要的教法之一，行者必须净观其上师等同于本尊与空行──即三根本总集的化现；而在更高阶的密续仪轨中，则有观想空行母为三根本总集的修持法，此时的空行母更兼具了法、报、化三身的证悟特质，“是无形色的‘真理之身’，亦即法身；就沟通与带来启发、证悟能力的层面而言，她是绝妙、庄严的“受用身”，也就是本尊和报身；而在无尽化现以破除我们执着的轮回习性上，她则展现了难以计数的“化身”成就。在空性的状态中，空行母是三身的俱现。”
对应于三根本、三身（three kāyas），在密乘有关空行母的修行上，更进一步地分为外、内、密三个阶段，“在外密的部份，是空行母显现的各种形貌：人或天神、寂静尊或忿怒尊、利益或危害人类；内密的空行母则在资深行者成功转化自身为伟大空行母（通常是金刚瑜伽母的本尊身）时，方才显现；而密密的空行母是无形的威力、能量与空性纯净的加持。”[22]
以上皆是对智慧空行母（wisdom ?ākinī）在密续上的相关要点阐释。 由此，可明显看出空行母在藏文中字义（如前述的语义分析）、教理和实修上的扩充，以及在修持上环环相扣的缜密架构。而常见对空行母的定义与诠释，则大致区分为胜义层次的智能空行母，以及世间供赞护法类的女性神祇两大类别，这种界分也合乎了空行母在入佛前后的定义演变。但必须注意的是，在此的智慧空行母并非一般所世俗认定的“女性”概念，“因为在密乘，尤其是无上瑜伽中，行者修习一个法门去开展其潜能，尤其是净光根本心，从每个人都拥有根本心的观点看，是没有男女之别的。”
此外，在噶举派堪布卡塔仁波切所著的《证悟的女性》一书中，也提及了空行母与五大（地、水、火、风、空）、五蕴（色、受、想、行、识）与五方佛父佛母[23]的相关教义[24]。
卡塔仁波切指出“男女两性都具有五蕴，也都有五大。地大指的是我们的色身肉体，水大是在我们体内流动的液体，我们体内产生的暖热即是火大，风大是我们呼吸时所需要的元素，而我们体内的空性即是空大。在我们尚未了悟五大的清净本质时，五大只是我们身体里面的五种元素；当了悟了五大的清净相时，我们就证悟到了五方佛的眷属──五方佛母的境地。”
当五蕴清净时，即证悟了五方佛的成就，而五大的本净状态展现时，也就到达了五方佛母（五大空行母）的成就境界；五方佛父、佛母的教授，“事实上就是代表圆满的证悟──我们身心染污的究竟清净，以及一切烦恼垢障的净除。”不管男、女，每个人皆兼具了五蕴与五大的元素，因此就密乘的观点而言，是没有男女性别的差异与歧视的，“不论男女，如果努力精进修持，都绝对能利用五蕴和五大来证悟成佛的。”[25]且如同五蕴与五大的密不可分，五方佛父、佛母的证悟成就，也是俱时展现的，因此在密续的唐卡上，“常以两性合一的象征方式来表达”[26]一如上师与空行母方便与智慧的象征，在密乘的修行上是内在、相辅相成的本质，绝非一般人对双运的误解与穿凿。
最后，套用 Keith Domman 在 《Sky Dancer 》书中的说法，他认为空行母对西方世界来说，是一个颇具价值的新概念，“其价值在于难以有确切的定义，她包含了一系列的意涵：阴性本质、精神融合的剎那、上师的法侣”等，而“‘空中舞者’的意象，则以在穹苍中舞动的空行女神（Goddess-?ākinī），召唤出非物质、翩飞（gossamer）、变形（shape-shifting）等不令人费解的指涉含义。”他进一步指出空行母具有“甚深的密续神秘性，而这个谜团唯有透过灌顶方能揭晓，即是瑜伽士以实证了悟空行真义的方式。”除此，“太过于概念化地理解，都难免有误，因为一旦以很好的说法来定义空行母时，她就会成为一个了无生趣的概念（dead concept）。”
而达赖喇嘛也在《藏传佛教世界》中强调，“当研读无上瑜伽密续时，即便是一个单字也会有好几种不同层次的解释。……在密续的一个单字或语词可以有四种不同的意义，这就是所谓的四知解义，”另外，“密乘也提到了另一个诠释学上的设计，可以帮助我们了解无上瑜伽的经典，也就是六参数，它们是三组对照的定义解释经文的意义”[27]（达赖喇嘛）。所以单一名词即具有许多不同的内涵，必须依其讨论的层次与领域而定，空行母的定义也不例外。
在探讨过空行母的历史演变与各层定义之后，本文将继续探讨在传承简传与上师传记中的空行母角色及其象征，以做为定义／实例的相互参照之用。
三、藏传佛教传记中的空行母
因为藏传佛教颇重视传记的书写与传承，在许多重要的祖师或大成就者传记中，皆隐含了甚深的密意与教法，从外、内、密三种传记的分类上[28]，可以清楚地看出其撰写主旨与象征层级的差异：“外传主要处理生平中‘外在’的重要事件，包括生、死等；内传则阐述主角的法教、灌顶与精神进展等；而密传旨在揭示禅定证悟的经验”，连带地对空行母身分与内容描述的比例、深浅也会随之异动。此外，在传记中谈及不同阶段[29]的密乘修持时，因“各种不同的密法中有其微细的差异性与复杂性，主要是反映行者的身心状况和性向的差异，”（达赖喇嘛，）所以空行母所显现的层级与状态（法、报、化三身或五大空行母），也会因应而有所不同。为了分析上的方便，仅选择较具代表性的上师传承传记与大成就者（Siddhas）传记中的空行母角色，进行相关的比对与讨论。
在现今流传的教派传承史中，噶举派的“金鬘”上师传承是最广为人知的一系；称其为金鬘（a golden rosary），乃是“因为其中每一位大师都如最上等的金子般珍贵完美，集胜悟、饱学和成就之大成于一身，也均能传予弟子湛深、直指人心的法教，使其顿悟大手印之心性。”（《金鬘》，序8）著名的密勒日巴尊者，便是金鬘传承的伟大上师之一，“如他自己所授记的，他的声名将为空行母所远播。在今日，他的生平故事已被写成多种不同的文字，对陷于轮回中的苦难众生产生很大的抚慰作用。他可能是继释迦牟尼佛之后最出名的佛教人物”。（《金鬘》，序13）因此，从“详述了建立噶举传承诸伟大上师的生平事迹”的《噶举金鬘上师传承》[30]一书中，我们可以清楚地看出空行母所扮演的关键性角色。
《噶举金鬘上师传承》的一开始，“描述了金刚总持（Vajradhara）无尽普被的利他功德──他也被称为‘原始佛’”（〈金鬘〉，序9），“位居三界之王及法王尊的金刚总持是三世诸佛、三宝及佛之三身的本质化现”[31]（《金鬘》，34），此法身佛常以净光报身的形式，对证悟的行者示现；因此，直接自金刚总持报身受持了法教的印度大成就者帝洛巴（Tilopa），就成为藏传噶举教派的第一位始祖。依照金刚总持的教授与指示，“当一位上师说显经（Suutra）的法时，他应同时说明佛陀的行谊事迹；当他教导密法（Shastras）时，当要详述编著者之生平；而当他给予实修指导时，便要指出自己上师的传承。”（《金鬘》，75）这也是为何藏传佛教各教特重上师传记的原因之一。
接着，我们不妨浏览一下空行母在帝洛巴简传中出现的时机与情形。首先，是帝洛巴应其父母的祈愿，降生在东孟加拉国札可城（Zako）、逐渐长大，有一天家里来了一位“丑陋”的女人，对其说道：“放牛 念经 你便会找到 空行之预言”后，便消失了。某日，当帝洛巴在放牛与念诵经文时，此妇人再度出现，对他表示：“你的家乡在北方的乌仗那，你的父亲是上乐金刚，你的母亲是金刚瑜伽母，你的哥哥是班渣巴那（Pantsapana），而我是你的姊姊赐喜（Bliss-giver）。假如你要找到真正的牛只，就到菩提树林里去，在那儿，清净的空行母持有口耳传承的法教。”[32]这个丑陋的女人，是乌仗那[33]（空行母净土）[34]的空行母之一，她给了帝洛巴带有象征意义的珠宝桥、水晶梯、和珊瑚柄的钥匙，让他得以顺利通过障碍──毒潭、铁墙和第一道门，进入空行母的净土。（《金鬘》，76-79）
在这个早先的情节（episodes）中，空行母即显现了多重的身分与指涉，她是“空行母净土中的女神”、“证悟共与不共成就的瑜伽女”[35]（Graham Coleman， 296）以及更为明显的“信差”（messengers）角色。根据第一世姜贡康楚仁波切所著《了义炬》（The Torch of Certainty）英译本的注释[36]中所指，“勇父（Daka，男性）与空行母（女性）分担护法的某些任务。空行母是女性菩萨，常常担任凡夫和佛菩萨之间的信差；”而且“护法帮助扫除行者的修行障碍，所以常现忿怒相，一直到魔障被征服为止。”（《了义炬》，88）在此处的空行母赐喜，兼具了帝洛巴的法源姊妹、护法与信差的多样角色，她带来了空行母口耳传承的讯息与暗喻（真正的牛只），并指点、协助（给予宝藏）他克服求法过程中可能遭遇到的阻碍与困难。
而 Nathan Katz 在《尼师与空行母：有关容格与藏传佛教的一项比较研究》(“Anima and mKha’-‘gro-ma: A Critical Comparative Study of Jung and Tibetan Buddhism”[37]一文中，也指出了“空行母的影响，在藏传佛教传记（rnam thar）中的普遍（主题）是标示出了‘转折点’的阶段。”（Katz，22）此时空行母的现身，会“吸引了这位未来成就者的注意力，并创造出一个时空，使旧有的习性模式，若不是遭到质疑，便是被彻底地粉碎。事实上，正因为她引导了一个全新的视界（insight），而这个视界的经验似乎能炸裂智识的藩篱与僵滞的心智，是故空行母被形容为‘戏耍的’（playful）、‘捉摸不定的’（capricious）。”（Willis，66）在帝洛巴传记接续的部份，可进一步了解这种智识的转换与空行母的试探戏耍。
就在帝洛巴打开第一道门后，他看到了无瑕空行母外在层次的化身，“这些数不清的化身外表狰狞恐怖，且嘴里发出刺耳吱声，张牙舞爪地要使他害怕。”（《金鬘》，79）但帝洛巴不为所动，而调伏了这些守护教法的化身空行母。之后，出现了报身层次的洛迦羯磨空行母（Loka Karma ?ākinī，意译为“世间事业空行”），帝洛巴做了三个降服的手印，调伏了这些空行母的身口意。最后他进入空行母的宫殿，见到了空行王后，先受持了有关气脉等珍贵的教法，后又接受最殊胜的身、口、意三宝藏的圆满密续，其间并经历一番针锋相对的对答，证明帝洛巴是已得空行授记的瑜伽行者，具有开启法宝的“任运解脱钥”。之后空行母给予帝洛巴四种灌顶，让其得到了共与不共的成就；这些智慧空行母还传予他口耳传承和心意传承的法教，共有十三种授自空行母的密续，此时的帝洛巴得大神通，能自在地翔飞于虚空之中。最后，一位无形的空行母还赐给了他九件法宝，领悟后的帝洛巴婉拒留在净土，回到人间静待有缘弟子那洛巴（Nāropa）与 Ririkasori 等。（《金鬘》，79-90）以上是帝洛巴传记中，有关“帝洛巴降伏空行母及受持空行母法教”的部份。
根据卡塔仁波切的说法，“噶举传承始于帝洛巴祖师，他由金刚总持直接得到法承。但由更深的层面来说，帝洛巴是经由智慧空行行母得到这些教法的。在金刚总持与帝洛巴之间传达的是智慧空行母，她担任桥梁的工作，将教法承递下去，如此，法教才能在世间弘扬。密续的高深法教是由空行母净土传来的，以空行母的语言传给这位高度的证悟者帝洛巴。”[38]（卡塔仁波切，236）
所以在上述段落，有关空行母王后与无形空行母传给帝洛巴密续教法、法宝的描述中，指出了智慧空行母的女性“智慧”本质、最高阶的承传者、法报化三身与密续上师的多重身分；且随着形貌怖畏的守护空行母、报身庄严的空行母到智慧空行母付法的过程中，一方面象征了空行母法、报、化三身的次第示现，另一方面也凸显出空行母对瑜伽行者“启发、导引、改变心智状态”的关连作用。“透过与空行母的接触，直觉的能力得以开展，并显现内观；若缺乏了空行母能量的活化（activation），修行将会是平板而智识化的。”
因为“空行母直接以生活经验传递，而非透过复杂的哲学论辩来传达，为此，空行母与密续的教法连结在一起，系因密法直接涉及了身、语、意能量的修持，远大过于显教经义的智识运作。”所以当修行者由知性的状态进入经验层次的密乘修持时，通常空行母便会首度现身，指引或暗示他接下来的进展方向。而“几乎在所有西藏的圣者故事中，都会有空行母在关键的时刻出现，行者与空行母的相遇，往往代表了一种对行者固定概念敏锐、犀利的挑战。”这个有关证悟的关键转化与打破僵化心智的复杂角色，清楚地显现在帝洛巴心子那洛巴由学者转为瑜伽士的寻法过程中。
在那洛巴成为最富盛名的那澜陀学院院长后，某日，当他在研读因明学的书籍时，出现了一位具有三十二丑相的老妇，诘问那洛巴是否懂得佛法的真义？并指示那洛巴去见她的哥哥，随后便化成一道彩虹消逝。“显现老乞婆样貌的空行母，是超越概念的本觉智慧（primordial wisdom），她的丑陋是因为那洛巴一直压抑与拒绝他内在的这个部份。这位本觉智慧的使者以隐匿的形态出现，是因为那诺巴一直蒙蔽自我，认为自己真正了解佛法，孰不知他只是不断在建造智识和条理化的迷宫罢了。”而妇人的三十二丑相，让他了解到轮回知负面特质的内、外、密层意义，“就外义而言，它代表三十二种产生轮回痛苦本质的粗细因果；就内义来看，它代表三十二种身心的染污；而就密义来说，它象征三十二轮脉中的三十二种行气。”[39]（《金鬘》，118）
受到启发的那洛巴，于是散尽全部资财，婉拒那澜陀学院五百班智达的挽留，决心离开，去寻找圆满证悟的上师。接着他受到空中传来声音的指点，在花布尸陀林诵持七十万遍的上乐金刚咒语后，有两位空行母示现（一说是在梦中，一说是亲身化现），给予那洛巴授记。从授记的预言中，“那洛巴了解到帝洛巴曾经七世都是他的上师”，于是“他辛勤地找了一个月，却一无所获。”在他心生怀疑后，又听到空中传来的声音，鼓励他继续找寻，先后经历了十二次的考验，分别是遇见了断崖边的痲疯妇人、长满蛆的狗、敲打他人头的男士、用剑砍人肠子的男人、清理人内脏的男人、王国与抛弃那洛巴的公主、正在持弓打猎的猎人、烧虱子的乞丐、钓鱼的老妇、杀父母的人、独眼国的独眼人[40]，最后，遍寻不获的那洛巴悲伤地想要自我了断时，空中又传来了声音，在那洛巴仰天祈请后，帝洛巴终于现身，收那洛巴为徒。
帝洛巴之所以迟迟未现身，是因为希望藉由试验的过程，让那洛巴意识到概念上的束缚与成见；但“因为缺乏与空行母的关连，无法了解其超越二元对立的象征语言，那洛巴仍是以‘自我’来行事，”也就一直无法亲见上师，而陷入世俗二元概念的幻境之中，最后那洛巴放弃掉对自我的执着，向虚空恳切地祈请后，方得才亲见上师（虽然先前他在“概念上”已经知晓了）。而对迈向证悟成就之道的行者（如求道中的那洛巴）来说，象征着空行母的女性角色，“提供了首次瞥见不二实相（non-dual reality）的机会；揭显现象界的空性本质；展现如魔术般幻境的舞蹈。这些经验可能与某位特殊的女性有关；也可能以连续遇见多位女性的方式，来显示空行母的智能；乃至（智慧空行母）不曾化身为任何女子。”在那洛巴传记中的空行母，曾至少出现过两回，很明显地符合了转折点的关键角色：第一次是老妇人对那洛巴的诘问，意味着空行母引发他对智性与世俗成就的怀疑，转而展开真正求法的艰辛旅程；第二次是那洛巴在尸林坟场苦修后，两位空行母现身、授记，让他知道自己宿世的有缘上师。由此可知，空行母化现的方式颇为多元、奇特，她可以在密乘行者的禅观、梦境中显现，也可能以凡夫之身、乃至动物（通常是母狗）的形式出现，为的是“不拘在任何时刻现身，闯入当时的情境中，测试、撼动未来成就者并阻绝其习性；”（Willis，66）或是“帮助密乘行者斩断妄念，转以能量的修持生起智慧。”
此外，在尸林修行也具有复杂的象征意义，除了与施身法传承（Ch Tradition）[41]的断除我执有密切关连外，忿怒空行母（wrathful ?ākinī）的能量也与坟场的黑暗、怖畏意象有关，瑜伽士必须通过忿怒空行母的试炼与戏耍，视这些境象为空性的幻化之舞，方能在密乘道上有进一步的提升。如帝洛巴首度遭遇挑战时，以无畏的能力折服了空行母，直达法性的宫殿；相对地，那诺巴一再地延误、错失良机，乃是因为他仍停留在二元化概念的状态，无法洞视空行母试探的幻象，难以与空行母（超越一切概念）的智慧能量产生连结的缘故。
要与空行母的能量接触，“有时是很骇人的，且总带着危险性”，但“在成就者的传记中，呈现出这些勇敢行者真正去寻觅‘空行母’的经过。为此，他们常历经险阻，并造访坟场与尸陀林。”而坟场与尸林所代表的象征，即是修行者自我的死亡，以进一步地融入空行母“无我”的智慧空性中。又为何与空行母的直接接触，会被形容为“历险”？主要是因为“这些偶遇通常带有一种基础的、实修的内观特质，而这种特质又是尖锐与忿怒的。这是黑暗女神本初的粗糙能量，往往一个清净的密乘行者必须接受自己内在的黑暗面后，才能在密乘道上有进一步的斩获。正因为如此，忿怒空行母常与血、肉有关连。”而“即便似乎是处在非道德的情境下，一个密乘的行者也可以、必须直接转化这个负面的状况，而不是去逃避。”[42]所以那洛巴在离开那澜陀寺后，最先的过渡便是到尸林苦修、持咒，再通过一层层的考验，逐渐脱却概念化的意识分别后，才得见上师──与空性智慧不可分离的方便。
在那洛巴心子马尔巴（Marpa，也就是噶举传承的第一位西藏祖师）的传记中，更可以看到他类似于那诺巴的历险遭遇──渡过毒潭、耗尽家财，及空行母的授记、襄助与关键性转化的描述。较为明显的部份，是马尔巴第二次前往印度求法时，去找上师之一的也希宁波（Yeshe Nyingpo），有一位服侍也希宁波、出身低贱的妇人，用手中的大水瓶给马尔巴灌顶，为其消除了一切障碍妄念，使他“见到了所有密集金刚（Guhyasamāja）的本尊。”随后也希宁波出现而给予他四灌顶和其它殊胜的法教；这是马尔巴与空行母的第一回接触，空行母消除了他接受高阶密法的障碍。之后，又有一次，当马尔巴再到印度南方探访另一位上师喜哇桑波（Shiwa Sangpo），在后者滚烫毒潭中的小岛上一同共修荟供时，出现了一位带着死尸的妇人，“她从头顶把脑壳切割下来，将喜哇桑波的尿和死尸的血混合盛在一起，她将此三昧耶甘露供养众人。当拿到马尔巴跟前时，甘露沸腾了起来，向里一探，马尔巴看到了《大幻化网》的咒字，并了悟其咒语之深义。”（《金鬘》，190-191）
此外，马尔巴还在空行母的引导下，前往另一位上师梅纪巴（Avadhutipa）所住的焰火山尸陀林，得到殊胜的灌顶，显现各种成就的兆相；又再到水树鬘，自骨饰瑜伽女（Yogini Bone Ornament）处获得了四座金刚教法。（190-194）而当马尔巴在印度住了二十年，将要回到西藏前夕，他去参访圣地并向上师辞行途中，又有几次空行母的示现，或给予灌顶（在恒河边的 Paciltra，于果园亲见甘露光传承的十五位圆满女性本尊）（《金鬘》，207）、或给予预言和加持（在尼泊尔 Ramadoli 尸陀林修荟供后，空行母在梦中授记，言明在他回藏的路上不会有任何障碍）（《金鬘》，208）、以及在梦中将他置于车座上，飞到南印的 Shri Parvara，接受了大成就者萨惹哈（Saraha）[43]的大手印教法。（《金鬘》，208-209）
从上述马尔巴的传记中，有关空行母的种种示现与引导、协助、灌顶等作用，乃至以忿怒相破除我执的惊人描述，同样可做为嗜血忿怒空行母／智慧空行母不拘形式化现的对照说明。而在马尔巴心子密勒日巴的传记中，也不乏类似的情节出现，因《密勒日巴尊者传》流传甚广，在此便不加赘述了。
从噶举派的上师传承传记中，显见空行母化现情形的着墨，在其它教派的上师传记中，也有诸多对空行母与成就上师之间互动关系的描写。例如萨迦派法教根源、印度八十四大成就者之一的勃哇巴，便是自巴契啰竹空行母处受持了法教，传法的过程，是“空行母将他吸进了右鼻孔，让他进入她的体内，……在一个吸气之间，他得到身、语、意、功德、事业的五种灌顶，也接受到了完整的教法。”（卡塔仁波切，237）另外，宁玛派祖师莲师的五位法侣，皆是金刚亥母（智慧空行母）的五位转世化身，以及在宁玛派最伟大的上师龙钦巴尊者（Longchen Rabjampa）与吉美林巴尊者（Jigme Lingpa）的传记中，也都有不少空行母示现、指引其开启伏藏（Terma）的描述；尤其是宁玛派历来的掘藏师（Terton），皆与空行母守护的伏藏有密切的关连，从 Janet Gyatso 所著的《自我的幻影：一位西藏大师的密传》（Apparitions of The Self: The Secret Autobiographies of a Tibetan Visionary），引用两本吉美林巴尊者亲撰的密传《水中月舞》（Dancing Moon in the Water）与《空行的殊胜秘语》（ākki’s Grand Secret-Talk）中，亦可发现与空行母有关的丰富资料，特别是《空行的殊胜秘语》，是尊者记述他在尼泊尔的大佛塔，亲见智慧空行母授予龙钦心髓伏藏[44]（Longchen Nyingtig Treasure）以空行秘语写成之法本，以及其后如何弘扬此法教的经过（Gyatso:1998，5）。
综言之，空行母“以多种形式显现，担任密续修行艰辛道上获得证悟成就临门一脚的、启发与协助的伙伴”。据 Katz 的统计，“在印度八十四位大成就者的传记中，有空行母为伴的便有五十六位”。此外，还有许多空行母转世的化身，如那洛巴的佛母尼古玛（Niguma），建立了著名的《那洛六法》传承；莲师的主要心子与佛母之一的益喜措嘉，传承了所有莲师的法教、埋藏伏藏与预言藏传佛教的兴替；玛尔巴证得虹光成就的佛母达媚玛（bDag-med-ma）；以及创建了藏传佛教施身法传承的玛吉拉准……等等。
从 Katz 对密乘成就者传记中空行母主要作用的归纳，或可做为本文探讨空行母在上师传记中角色、常见主题的总结。他整理出空行母在成就者传记中的特点，计有：1.对成就者产生启发与指引；2.直接或间接地给予成就者灌顶；3.充当成就者的功德主（patron）；4.成就者能力的来源；5.伏藏的守护者；6.成就者自传的主角。从上述举证的噶举派金鬘传承上师传记中，亦可与Katz列举之六大主题相互对照。
四、结语
不管是在男性上师传记或女性上师传记的叙事中，依循或分类的重点并不在于性别的差异。因为在密续的修持中，既已超越了世俗的概念，对于性别、阶级、身份之分也一概超越了。
依据究竟空性或三身的教授，男性或女性只是本质上的能量代言，仅是世俗谛层次的方便诠说，在根本上并无分别。若仔细分析藏传佛教上师传记的书写体例，除了外、内、密传的分类外，其叙事上有一共通的成规：皆在描述一位凡夫如何发心出离尘世、面对修行中种种的内外困境与障碍，终于自轮回中解脱并利益无数众生的过程。在这些过程中，空行母的示现、指引、点化乃至成就者领悟到自身本具的智慧空行母三身本质，可殊途同归地指出了某种根本意旨——也就是众生佛性湛然、平等无别的共通性。在论述中强调出空行母的女性特质，无非是希望在面对质疑女性证悟能力的说法时，能藉以反驳与澄清，阐明佛性本无“性别差异”的实相而已。
注释：
1. 藏传佛教修持系统中，有极微精密的分类与对应关系，通常以外、内、密等三个等级来区分与归类，例如在“外”相上的三宝：佛、法、僧，在“内”的层次上即为三根本：上师、本尊、空行，到了“密”的层次，则是三身：法身、报身、化身。这三／三／三的对应关系互为连属、彼此密不可分。
2. 文殊菩萨的佛母。
3. 参见 Sarat Chandra Das，A Tibetan-English Dictionary（rpt., Delhi:Motilal Babarsidass, 1970）, p.180（Willis, n. 7）。
4. 参见1895年 L. Austine Waddell，Tibetan Buddhism（London: Allen & Co.; New York: Dover Publications, 1972），p.366 ( Willis, n. 6)。
5. 为 Keith Dowman 英译益喜措嘉佛母传记的书名。
6. 高阶与低阶的区隔，仅是为了定义上与描述上的方便，并无政治、性别或阶级上的意识型态意涵。
7. 商羯罗生于南印度之摩拉巴尔，生卒年约公元700-750年，另有一说谓780-820年间。他承袭吠陀学说的冥思方式与奥义书“万物一体”的理论，又吸收大乘佛教思想及耆那教的部分教义，而改婆罗门教为印度教。他建立了绝对一元论的思想体系，认为现实世界皆为幻相，唯有个人精神（我）和宇宙最高原则（梵），是同一不二的真实存在。
8. 关于西方当代中观研究的流变与“洋格义”诠释，可参考林镇国先生《欧美学界中观哲学诠释史略》，《台大佛学研究中心学报》第二期（1997.7），p.281-307，与万金川先生《中观思想讲录》第十一章〈中观学研究的过去与现在〉，p.171-196。
9. 包括瑜伽行派与小乘正量部的论战、中观学派与瑜伽行派的论辩、以及中观应成派月称对小乘有部、经部与大乘唯识、清辨中观自续派论点的驳斥等，相关史略，请参考吕澄《印度佛教思想概论》，p.258-286。
10. 湿婆又称鲁达罗（梵文为 Rudra，意指荒神）。是印度教信仰中的毁灭之神、苦行之神与舞蹈之神。
11. 为了区别，在论及印度教体系中的 ākinī 时，皆从其古音译“荼吉尼”，而“空行母”一词，则用于印度晚期密乘与藏传佛教的相关讨论中。
12. 雅隆位于西藏中部，是西藏历史上重要的藩国之一。
13. 此译名为笔者参照藏文拼音所译出，不尽详切，但却可大致窥出由古老神话与泛灵信仰混杂所形成的女神形貌。
14. 据说慈悲的观音菩萨，化身为一只公猿，与独居在深山中的岩石魔女（rock demoness）结合，其后代便是藏人的始祖。
15. 藏传佛教中的菩萨属于男性，不若汉地信仰中将观音菩萨女性化。
16. 即由早期小乘对女性的歧视，视女性为贪欲、不净的对象，到大乘佛教中女性观的逐步修正、扩展，认为男女在证悟能力上的平等性。
17. 这与空行母在证悟成佛时的愿力有关，譬如观世音菩萨化身之一、兼为本尊与空行的绿度母，在成佛时便发愿，愿世世以女身救度众生。
18. 此处的黑体表示英文的大写。
19. 四种手印分别是：三昧耶手印、智慧羯摩手印、法印与大手印。而手印的意义，则包含了封缄、誓言（commitment）、象征、手势、姿态以及空行母或法侣等六种。详细内容请参考 Sky Dancer 第四章《灌顶与教示》（“Initiation and Instruction”），益喜措嘉佛母接受莲师灌顶与修持的经过，或参见p.192页注8。
20. 指超越一切概念、非戏论，清净无染污的证悟状态。分说胜义谛与世俗谛“二谛”，是中观学派的根本要义之一。请详见龙树菩萨的《中论》与月称法师的《入中论》。
21. 英文中对“空性”尚无可确切迻译的字词，因此有各种翻译，如 Emptiness, Nothingness, Voidness 等，最常见的译法为 Emptiness，即梵文中的 sunyata 或藏文的 sTong pa nyid 之意。
22. 关于空行母外、内、密三阶段的释义，系 Willis 引述 Geshe Jampel Thar’dod 的说明。见p.153注57。
23. 五方佛父与其眷属（法侣），依次是中方的毗卢遮那佛与宁初玛（Nying Tsukma）、东方的不动佛与给玛（Gyema）、南方的宝生佛与那玛吉（Namaki）、西方的阿弥陀佛与那札卡嫫（Naza Karmo）、北方的不空成就佛与丹企卓玛（Damtsik Drolma）。
24. 有关五大空行母更为详尽的解说，请参考 Thinley Norbu Rinpoche 所著的 Magic Dance：The Display of the Self-Nature of the Five Wisdom ?ākinīs（Boston & London: Shambhala, 1981, rpt.1999）。
25. 五大与“中阴”的教授也有密切的关系，可参考达赖喇嘛《藏传佛教世界》第十九章《无上瑜伽修行》有关“死亡、中阴、转生”部份的解说p.130-136。
26. 此黑体为笔者所加，意在强调密续仪轨中的象征意义。
27. 四知解义即文字义、普通义、隐藏义、究竟义四种。六参数的三组对照分别为：1.说明与定义参数；2.意欲与无意参数；3.字义与非字义参数。详文请参见《藏传佛教世界》p.124-126。
28. 有关女性上师传记的外、内、密传差异，可参考拙文《智慧的女性：试论藏传佛教之女性上师传记》，发表于88年9月《中外文学》第二十八卷第四期，页188-211。
29. 如外密三乘：事部、行部、瑜伽部，以及内密的无上瑜伽部（外密与内密的四部，又合称为“四部瑜伽”），对空行母的阐释与观修法便大有不同。在无上瑜伽部的三个修行阶段：生起次第（Mahayoga）、圆满次第（Anuyoga）、大圆满（Adiyoga），或另称内密三乘：父密续、母密续、不二密续，及其下更为细部的教法、仪轨中，会有极细密的分说与释义，以因应不同的修持状态与传承。详见《藏传佛教世界》第三部份《西藏的金刚乘佛教》的说明，p. 90-153。
30. 此书的藏文原典由金鬘传承的上师之一吉天颂恭的再传弟子多杰泽悟（Dorje Dze ?d）所撰录，英译本由旅美止贡噶举派的堪布 K?nchog Gyaltsen 翻译，Victoria Juckenpahler 编辑而成。
31. 三世指过去、现在、未来；三宝即佛、法、僧；佛之三身为法身、报身、化身。
32. 上乐金刚是噶举派的父续（男性）本尊之首，金刚亥母则为母续（女性）本尊之首。此处的金刚亥母为上乐金刚的明妃，身红色、顶有猪首；当其以顶无亥首的形式显现时，即等同于金刚瑜伽母，金刚瑜伽母多见于噶举、萨迦、格鲁派的修持仪轨。参见 Graham Coleman ed., A Handbook of Tibetan Culture，有关金刚亥母（Vajravarahi）、与金刚瑜伽母(Vajrayogini)的解释条目，p.412-3。
33. 乌仗那也就是前述有关空行母净土的乌仗那国。古译又称乌孙国、乌长国、乌场国、乌缠国、乌苌国。位于当时北印度健驮罗国的北方，东边隔着印度河与乌剌尸国及迦湿弥罗国相对，相当于今日兴都库什山脉（Hindu kush）以南之丘陵地带，也就是在现今的巴基斯坦境内。
34. 关于空行母净土的由来，系为释迦牟尼佛三转法轮、传下金刚乘的密法时，有成千上万的女性自莲师的净土乌仗那前往听法，立时证悟佛果，于是被称为空行母，因为接受密乘的教法时女性远多于男性，因此空行母的数量远超过男性的勇父。于是“在那之后，密乘的法教就被殆尽更高的境域中──空行母净土，而空行母也就成为密续的法教之源。”（卡塔仁波切，231-2）关于空行母的数量，从益喜措嘉佛母传记的第八章中或可约略揣想，其中描述措嘉在入涅之前，对其十一位心子传法、授记后，在第八天里，自四面八方涌来了无数的空行母．有乌金净土（乌仗那空行净土）的十二类、一千两百万忿怒空行母，十二类嗜血啖人的世间空行五百万五千五百位，更低阶的十二类时间空行一千两百一十二万……，以及其它各类、难以想象的空行母。（Dowman．166）、（Tarthang Tulku，194-5）
35. 共的成就指世俗谛的四种事业（息、增、怀、诛）成就，不共成就是证悟了究竟佛性（空性）的胜义境界。
36. 第一世姜贡康楚仁波切是十九世纪末西藏最伟大的三位上师之一，他与蒋扬钦哲汪坡、秋究林巴、米滂仁波切等在东藏共同推动了利美（Rime，无分教派）运动，保存、整理、传承了无数珍贵的法教，被诩为藏传佛教的文艺复兴。姜贡康楚仁波的《了义炬》，是对藏传佛教各教派最主要的修行基础──四加行的阐释，其英译本系 Judith Hanson 做为加拿大哥伦比亚大学文学硕士的论文，其注释大致引用噶举派卡卢仁波切（Kalu Rinpoche）、珍由仁波切（Tsengyur Rinpoche）、萨迦派德松仁波切（Deshung Rinpoche）与西藏学者罗桑拉陇巴（Lobsang P. Lhalungpa）的说明。
37. 见 The Tibet Journal, vol.2. no. 3 (Autumn 1977)，p. 13-43. (Cit. Willis，note 10.)
38. 有关空行母秘密语言的说明，请参考 Women of Wisdom 引文中”The Language of Dakini”的部份，p.42-46。
39. 相对地，转化这一切、清净了所有染污后的佛陀，就显现圆满的三十二相随行好。
40. 这些考验均是帝洛巴或空行母的化身试探，每个段落皆为了彰显内在的象征意义，破除那洛巴的我执与概念，并非一般的世俗现象，请参见《金鬘》p.124-132的描述。
41. 有关施身法的修行与法脉，以及创建施身法的玛吉拉卓传记，请参考 Jér?me Edou，Machig Labdron And The Foundations of Ch?d（1996）一书，或拙文《智慧的女性：试论藏传佛教之女性上师传记》。
42. 在此，可以对照前述的印度教伽梨女神扈从荼吉尼的嗜血形象，但其负面的、恐怖的特质在进入密乘，「转化」为忿怒空行或护法的过程中，已被转化为正面的、帮助行者破除我执的象征性教义。
43. 有关萨惹哈由大学者转变为密乘瑜伽士的过程，与那洛巴有几分近似，他在市场遇到了一位出身低贱的化身空行母，无视众人的争议，尊其为上师。有一回在这位妇人煮咖哩萝卜时，萨惹哈入定了十二年，出定后因为这位空行母的点化，才真正放下概念的分别。请参见 Women of Wisdom 前言中的相关段落，p.38-39。
44. 系由龙钦巴尊者所传下的大圆满法教，也是目前盛行欧美的卓千法（藏文的 Dzogchen，即大圆满法），是宁玛派最甚深、殊乘的教法。
参考书目
1.何文心译，堪布卡塔仁波切着《证悟的女性》。台北：众生，1995。
2.卓格多杰着，《火舞空行──移喜蹉嘉传奇》。台北：圆明，1997。
3.陈琴富译，达赖喇嘛着《藏传佛教世界》。台北：立绪，1997。
4.谢思仁译，堪布昆丘嘉真、维多利亚．哈肯巴勒编译《噶举金鬘传承上师》。台北：众生，1996。
5.郑振煌译，姜贡康楚仁波切、塔汤仁波切著《了义炬·活用佛法》。台北：慧炬，1989。
6.吕澄《印度佛学思想概论》。台北：天华，1982。
7.万金川《中观思想讲录》。嘉义：香光书乡，1998。
8.林镇国《欧美学界中观哲学诠释史略》，《台大佛学研究中心学报》第二期（1997, 07）P. 281-307。
9.Janet Gyatso,”Down With the Demonesss: Reflections on a Feminine Ground in Tibet” in Janice Willis ed., Feminine Ground: Essays on Women and Tibet. New York: Snow Lion, 1987, p.33-51.
10.---,Appatitions of the Self: The Secret Autobiographies of A Tibetan Visionary. New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press, 1998.
11.Graham Coleman ed., A Handbook of Tibetan Culture: A guide to Tibetan Centres and Resources Throughout the World. New Delhi: Rupa & Co., 1993.
12.Janice Willis, “Dakini: Some Comments on Its Nature and Meaning”, in Janice Willis ed. Feminine Ground: Essays on Women and Tibet. New York: Snow Lion, 1987.
13.Jér?me Edou, Machig Labdr?n and the Foundations of Ch?d. New York: Snow Lion,1996
14.Keith Dowman,Master of Mahamudra: Songs and Histories of the Eighty-Four Buddhist Siddhas. New York: State Univ. of New York, 1985.
15.---,Sky Dancer : The Secret Life and Songs of The Lady Yeshe Tsogyel. New York: Snow Lion, 1996.
16.Sandy Johnson, The Book of Tibetan Elders: The Life Stories and Wisdom of the Great Spiritual Masters of Tibet. New York: Riverhead Books, 1996.
17.Tarthang Tulku, Mother of Knowledge: The Enlightenment of Ye-shes mTsho-rgyal. Berkeley: Dharma Publisher, 1983
18.Tsultrim Allione, Women of Wisdom. Arkana: Penguin Books,1984( First published, 1984)
19.Tulku Thondup, Masters of Meditation and Miracles: The Longchen Nyingthig Lineage of Tibetan Buddhism. Boston: Shambhala, 1996.
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